医学图像分割的深度学习模型可能会出乎意料地且出乎意料地失败，而与训练图像相比，在不同中心获得的病理案例和图像，标签错误违反了专家知识。此类错误破坏了对医学图像细分的深度学习模型的可信赖性。检测和纠正此类故障的机制对于将该技术安全地转化为诊所至关重要，并且可能是对未来人工智能法规（AI）的要求。在这项工作中，我们提出了一个值得信赖的AI理论框架和一个实用系统，该系统可以使用后备方法和基于Dempster-Shafer理论的失败机制增强任何骨干AI系统。我们的方法依赖于可信赖的AI的可行定义。我们的方法会自动放弃由骨干AI预测的体素级标签，该标签违反了专家知识，并依赖于这些体素的后备。我们证明了拟议的值得信赖的AI方法在最大的报告的胎儿MRI的注释数据集中，由13个中心的540个手动注释的胎儿脑3D T2W MRI组成。我们值得信赖的AI方法改善了在各个中心获得的胎儿脑MRI和各种脑异常的胎儿的最先进的主链AI的鲁棒性。

来自多个磁共振成像（MRI）方式的脑肿瘤分割是医学图像计算中的具有挑战性的任务。主要挑战在于各种扫描仪和成像协议的普遍性。在本文中，我们探讨了在不增加推理时间的情况下增加模型稳健性的策略。为此目的，我们探索使用不同损失，优化仪和培训验证数据拆分培训的型号的强大合奏。重要的是，我们探讨了U-Net架构的瓶颈中的变压器。虽然我们在瓶颈中发现变压器比平均基线U-Net更差，但是广义的Wasserstein骰子损失一致地产生优异的结果。此外，我们采用了高效的测试时间增强策略，以实现更快和强大的推论。我们的最终集合具有测试时间增强的七个3D U-Nets的平均骰子得分为89.4％，平均HAUSDORFF 95％距离10.0 mm在Brats 2021测试数据集时。我们的代码和培训的型号在https://github.com/lucasfidon/trabit_brats2021上公开提供。

本文介绍了我们参与FETA挑战2021的方法（团队名称：特拉比特）。认为医学图像分割的卷积神经网络的性能被认为与训练数据的数量正相关。 FETA挑战不会限制参与者仅使用提供的培训数据，还可以使用其他公共可用的来源。然而，开放式胎儿脑数据仍然有限。因此，有利的策略可以扩展训练数据以覆盖更广泛的围产期脑成像来源。除了敌人挑战数据之外，围产期脑部MRIS，目前可公开可用，跨越正常和病理胎儿地图空间以及新生儿扫描。然而，在不同数据集中分段的围产期脑MRIS通常具有不同的注释协议。这使得将这些数据集结合起来训练深度神经网络的挑战。我们最近提出了一系列损失职能，标签集丢失功能，用于部分监督学习。标签集丢失功能允许使用部分分段图像培训深度神经网络，即某些类可以将某些类分为超级类别。我们建议使用标签集丢失功能来通过合并几个公共数据集来改善多级胎儿脑细分的最先进的深度学习管道的分割性能。为了促进可延流性，我们的方法不会引入任何额外的超参数调整。

限制机器学习系统的故障对于安全至关重要的应用至关重要。为了提高机器学习系统的鲁棒性，已提出了分配鲁棒优化（DRO）作为经验风险最小化（ERM）的概括。然而，由于与ERM的随机梯度下降（SGD）优化器相比，由于可用于DRO的优化器的相对效率相对效率相对低效率，因此在深度学习中的使用受到了严格的限制。我们建议使用硬度加权采样的SGD，这是机器学习中DRO的原则性高效优化方法，在深度学习的背景下特别适合。与实践中的硬示例挖掘策略类似，所提出的算法可以直接实施和计算，并且与用于深度学习的基于SGD的优化器一样有效，需要最小的开销计算。与典型的临时硬采矿方法相反，我们证明了我们的DRO算法的收敛性，用于过度参数化的深度学习网络，并具有RELU激活以及有限数量的层和参数。我们对MRI中胎儿脑3D MRI分割和脑肿瘤分割的实验证明了我们方法的可行性和有用性。使用我们的硬度加权采样进行训练，最先进的深度学习管道可改善自动胎儿脑中解剖学变异的鲁棒性3D MRI分割，并改善了对脑肿瘤分割的图像方案变化的鲁棒性。我们的代码可从https://github.com/lucasfidon/hardnessweightedsampler获得。

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has become commonplace to solve routine everyday tasks. Because of the exponential growth in medical imaging data volume and complexity, the workload on radiologists is steadily increasing. We project that the gap between the number of imaging exams and the number of expert radiologist readers required to cover this increase will continue to expand, consequently introducing a demand for AI-based tools that improve the efficiency with which radiologists can comfortably interpret these exams. AI has been shown to improve efficiency in medical-image generation, processing, and interpretation, and a variety of such AI models have been developed across research labs worldwide. However, very few of these, if any, find their way into routine clinical use, a discrepancy that reflects the divide between AI research and successful AI translation. To address the barrier to clinical deployment, we have formed MONAI Consortium, an open-source community which is building standards for AI deployment in healthcare institutions, and developing tools and infrastructure to facilitate their implementation. This report represents several years of weekly discussions and hands-on problem solving experience by groups of industry experts and clinicians in the MONAI Consortium. We identify barriers between AI-model development in research labs and subsequent clinical deployment and propose solutions. Our report provides guidance on processes which take an imaging AI model from development to clinical implementation in a healthcare institution. We discuss various AI integration points in a clinical Radiology workflow. We also present a taxonomy of Radiology AI use-cases. Through this report, we intend to educate the stakeholders in healthcare and AI (AI researchers, radiologists, imaging informaticists, and regulators) about cross-disciplinary challenges and possible solutions.

Existing analyses of neural network training often operate under the unrealistic assumption of an extremely small learning rate. This lies in stark contrast to practical wisdom and empirical studies, such as the work of J. Cohen et al. (ICLR 2021), which exhibit startling new phenomena (the "edge of stability" or "unstable convergence") and potential benefits for generalization in the large learning rate regime. Despite a flurry of recent works on this topic, however, the latter effect is still poorly understood. In this paper, we take a step towards understanding genuinely non-convex training dynamics with large learning rates by performing a detailed analysis of gradient descent for simplified models of two-layer neural networks. For these models, we provably establish the edge of stability phenomenon and discover a sharp phase transition for the step size below which the neural network fails to learn "threshold-like" neurons (i.e., neurons with a non-zero first-layer bias). This elucidates one possible mechanism by which the edge of stability can in fact lead to better generalization, as threshold neurons are basic building blocks with useful inductive bias for many tasks.

We introduce the XPER (eXplainable PERformance) methodology to measure the specific contribution of the input features to the predictive or economic performance of a model. Our methodology offers several advantages. First, it is both model-agnostic and performance metric-agnostic. Second, XPER is theoretically founded as it is based on Shapley values. Third, the interpretation of the benchmark, which is inherent in any Shapley value decomposition, is meaningful in our context. Fourth, XPER is not plagued by model specification error, as it does not require re-estimating the model. Fifth, it can be implemented either at the model level or at the individual level. In an application based on auto loans, we find that performance can be explained by a surprisingly small number of features. XPER decompositions are rather stable across metrics, yet some feature contributions switch sign across metrics. Our analysis also shows that explaining model forecasts and model performance are two distinct tasks.

We introduce a parametric view of non-local two-step denoisers, for which BM3D is a major representative, where quadratic risk minimization is leveraged for unsupervised optimization. Within this paradigm, we propose to extend the underlying mathematical parametric formulation by iteration. This generalization can be expected to further improve the denoising performance, somehow curbed by the impracticality of repeating the second stage for all two-step denoisers. The resulting formulation involves estimating an even larger amount of parameters in a unsupervised manner which is all the more challenging. Focusing on the parameterized form of NL-Ridge, the simplest but also most efficient non-local two-step denoiser, we propose a progressive scheme to approximate the parameters minimizing the risk. In the end, the denoised images are made up of iterative linear combinations of patches. Experiments on artificially noisy images but also on real-world noisy images demonstrate that our method compares favorably with the very best unsupervised denoisers such as WNNM, outperforming the recent deep-learning-based approaches, while being much faster.

The French National Institute of Geographical and Forest Information (IGN) has the mission to document and measure land-cover on French territory and provides referential geographical datasets, including high-resolution aerial images and topographic maps. The monitoring of land-cover plays a crucial role in land management and planning initiatives, which can have significant socio-economic and environmental impact. Together with remote sensing technologies, artificial intelligence (IA) promises to become a powerful tool in determining land-cover and its evolution. IGN is currently exploring the potential of IA in the production of high-resolution land cover maps. Notably, deep learning methods are employed to obtain a semantic segmentation of aerial images. However, territories as large as France imply heterogeneous contexts: variations in landscapes and image acquisition make it challenging to provide uniform, reliable and accurate results across all of France. The FLAIR-one dataset presented is part of the dataset currently used at IGN to establish the French national reference land cover map "Occupation du sol \`a grande \'echelle" (OCS- GE).

Out-of-distribution detection is crucial to the safe deployment of machine learning systems. Currently, the state-of-the-art in unsupervised out-of-distribution detection is dominated by generative-based approaches that make use of estimates of the likelihood or other measurements from a generative model. Reconstruction-based methods offer an alternative approach, in which a measure of reconstruction error is used to determine if a sample is out-of-distribution. However, reconstruction-based approaches are less favoured, as they require careful tuning of the model's information bottleneck - such as the size of the latent dimension - to produce good results. In this work, we exploit the view of denoising diffusion probabilistic models (DDPM) as denoising autoencoders where the bottleneck is controlled externally, by means of the amount of noise applied. We propose to use DDPMs to reconstruct an input that has been noised to a range of noise levels, and use the resulting multi-dimensional reconstruction error to classify out-of-distribution inputs. Our approach outperforms not only reconstruction-based methods, but also state-of-the-art generative-based approaches.