物理信息神经网络（PINN）能够找到给定边界值问题的解决方案。我们使用有限元方法（FEM）的几个想法来增强工程问题中现有的PINN的性能。当前工作的主要贡献是促进使用主要变量的空间梯度作为分离神经网络的输出。后来，具有较高衍生物的强形式应用于主要变量的空间梯度作为物理约束。此外，该问题的所谓能量形式被应用于主要变量，作为训练的附加约束。所提出的方法仅需要一阶导数来构建物理损失函数。我们讨论了为什么通过不同模型之间的各种比较，这一点是有益的。基于配方混合的PINN和FE方法具有一些相似之处。前者利用神经网络的复杂非线性插值将PDE及其能量形式最小化及其能量形式，而后者则在元素节点借助Shape函数在元素节点上使用相同。我们专注于异质固体，以显示深学习在不同边界条件下在复杂环境中预测解决方案的能力。针对FEM的解决方案对两个原型问题的解决方案进行了检查：弹性和泊松方程（稳态扩散问题）。我们得出的结论是，通过正确设计PINN中的网络体系结构，深度学习模型有可能在没有其他来源的任何可用初始数据中解决异质域中的未知数。最后，关于Pinn和FEM的组合进行了讨论，以在未来的开发中快速准确地设计复合材料。

物理信息的神经网络（PINN）是神经网络（NNS），它们作为神经网络本身的组成部分编码模型方程，例如部分微分方程（PDE）。如今，PINN是用于求解PDE，分数方程，积分分化方程和随机PDE的。这种新颖的方法已成为一个多任务学习框架，在该框架中，NN必须在减少PDE残差的同时拟合观察到的数据。本文对PINNS的文献进行了全面的综述：虽然该研究的主要目标是表征这些网络及其相关的优势和缺点。该综述还试图将出版物纳入更广泛的基于搭配的物理知识的神经网络，这些神经网络构成了香草·皮恩（Vanilla Pinn）以及许多其他变体，例如物理受限的神经网络（PCNN），各种HP-VPINN，变量HP-VPINN，VPINN，VPINN，变体。和保守的Pinn（CPINN）。该研究表明，大多数研究都集中在通过不同的激活功能，梯度优化技术，神经网络结构和损耗功能结构来定制PINN。尽管使用PINN的应用范围广泛，但通过证明其在某些情况下比有限元方法（FEM）等经典数值技术更可行的能力，但仍有可能的进步，最著名的是尚未解决的理论问题。

我们提出了一种基于具有子域（CENN）的神经网络的保守能量方法，其中允许通过径向基函数（RBF），特定解决方案神经网络和通用神经网络构成满足没有边界惩罚的基本边界条件的可允许功能。与具有子域的强形式Pinn相比，接口处的损耗术语具有较低的阶数。所提出的方法的优点是效率更高，更准确，更小的近双达，而不是具有子域的强形式Pinn。所提出的方法的另一个优点是它可以基于可允许功能的特殊结构适用于复杂的几何形状。为了分析其性能，所提出的方法宫殿用于模拟代表性PDE，这些实施例包括强不连续性，奇异性，复杂边界，非线性和异质问题。此外，在处理异质问题时，它优于其他方法。

Recent years have witnessed a growth in mathematics for deep learning--which seeks a deeper understanding of the concepts of deep learning with mathematics, and explores how to make it more robust--and deep learning for mathematics, where deep learning algorithms are used to solve problems in mathematics. The latter has popularised the field of scientific machine learning where deep learning is applied to problems in scientific computing. Specifically, more and more neural network architectures have been developed to solve specific classes of partial differential equations (PDEs). Such methods exploit properties that are inherent to PDEs and thus solve the PDEs better than classical feed-forward neural networks, recurrent neural networks, and convolutional neural networks. This has had a great impact in the area of mathematical modeling where parametric PDEs are widely used to model most natural and physical processes arising in science and engineering, In this work, we review such methods and extend them for parametric studies as well as for solving the related inverse problems. We equally proceed to show their relevance in some industrial applications.

The identification of material parameters occurring in constitutive models has a wide range of applications in practice. One of these applications is the monitoring and assessment of the actual condition of infrastructure buildings, as the material parameters directly reflect the resistance of the structures to external impacts. Physics-informed neural networks (PINNs) have recently emerged as a suitable method for solving inverse problems. The advantages of this method are a straightforward inclusion of observation data. Unlike grid-based methods, such as the finite element method updating (FEMU) approach, no computational grid and no interpolation of the data is required. In the current work, we aim to further develop PINNs towards the calibration of the linear-elastic constitutive model from full-field displacement and global force data in a realistic regime. We show that normalization and conditioning of the optimization problem play a crucial role in this process. Therefore, among others, we identify the material parameters for initial estimates and balance the individual terms in the loss function. In order to reduce the dependence of the identified material parameters on local errors in the displacement approximation, we base the identification not on the stress boundary conditions but instead on the global balance of internal and external work. In addition, we found that we get a better posed inverse problem if we reformulate it in terms of bulk and shear modulus instead of Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio. We demonstrate that the enhanced PINNs are capable of identifying material parameters from both experimental one-dimensional data and synthetic full-field displacement data in a realistic regime. Since displacement data measured by, e.g., a digital image correlation (DIC) system is noisy, we additionally investigate the robustness of the method to different levels of noise.

在本文中，我们介绍了一种基于距离场的新方法，以确保物理知识的深神经网络中的边界条件。众所周知，满足网状紫外线和颗粒方法中的Dirichlet边界条件的挑战是众所周知的。该问题在物理信息的开发中也是相关的，用于解决部分微分方程的解。我们在人工神经网络中介绍几何意识的试验功能，以改善偏微分方程的深度学习培训。为此，我们使用来自建设性的实体几何（R函数）和广义的等级坐标（平均值潜在字段）的概念来构建$ \ phi $，对域边界的近似距离函数。要恰好施加均匀的Dirichlet边界条件，试验函数乘以\ PHI $乘以PINN近似，并且通过Transfinite插值的泛化用于先验满足的不均匀Dirichlet（必要），Neumann（自然）和Robin边界复杂几何形状的条件。在这样做时，我们消除了与搭配方法中的边界条件满意相关的建模误差，并确保以ritz方法点点到运动可视性。我们在具有仿射和弯曲边界的域上的线性和非线性边值问题的数值解。 1D中的基准问题，用于线性弹性，平面扩散和光束弯曲;考虑了泊松方程的2D，考虑了双音态方程和非线性欧克隆方程。该方法延伸到更高的尺寸，并通过在4D超立方套上解决彼此与均匀的Dirichlet边界条件求泊松问题来展示其使用。该研究提供了用于网眼分析的途径，以在没有域离散化的情况下在确切的几何图形上进行。

Solute transport in porous media is relevant to a wide range of applications in hydrogeology, geothermal energy, underground CO2 storage, and a variety of chemical engineering systems. Due to the complexity of solute transport in heterogeneous porous media, traditional solvers require high resolution meshing and are therefore expensive computationally. This study explores the application of a mesh-free method based on deep learning to accelerate the simulation of solute transport. We employ Physics-informed Neural Networks (PiNN) to solve solute transport problems in homogeneous and heterogeneous porous media governed by the advection-dispersion equation. Unlike traditional neural networks that learn from large training datasets, PiNNs only leverage the strong form mathematical models to simultaneously solve for multiple dependent or independent field variables (e.g., pressure and solute concentration fields). In this study, we construct PiNN using a periodic activation function to better represent the complex physical signals (i.e., pressure) and their derivatives (i.e., velocity). Several case studies are designed with the intention of investigating the proposed PiNN's capability to handle different degrees of complexity. A manual hyperparameter tuning method is used to find the best PiNN architecture for each test case. Point-wise error and mean square error (MSE) measures are employed to assess the performance of PiNNs' predictions against the ground truth solutions obtained analytically or numerically using the finite element method. Our findings show that the predictions of PiNN are in good agreement with the ground truth solutions while reducing computational complexity and cost by, at least, three orders of magnitude.

从经典上讲，材料的机械响应是通过构成模型来描述的，通常是以受约束的普通微分方程的形式描述。这些模型的参数数量非常有限，但是它们在重现实验中观察到的复杂响应方面非常有效。此外，以离散形式的形式，它们在计算上非常有效，通常会导致简单的代数关系，因此它们已被广泛用于大规模的显式和隐式有限元模型。但是，制定新的本构模型是非常具有挑战性的，特别是对于具有复合材料等复杂微结构的材料。构造建模的最新趋势利用复杂的神经网络体系结构来构建本构模型尚不存在的复杂材料响应。尽管非常准确，但它们遭受了两种缺陷。首先，它们是插值模型，在外推过程中通常做得很差。其次，由于它们的复杂体系结构和许多参数，它们在大规模有限元模型中被用作本构模型的效率低下。在这项研究中，我们提出了一种基于物理知识的学习机的新方法，以表征和发现本构模型。与数据驱动的本构模型不同，我们利用弹性性理论的基础作为总损耗函数中的正则化项，以查找理论上也是如此的参数本构模型。我们证明，我们提出的框架可以有效地识别描述冯·米塞斯家族不同数据集的基本构型模型。

物理知识的神经网络（PINNS）由于能力将物理定律纳入模型，在工程的各个领域都引起了很多关注。但是，对机械和热场之间涉及耦合的工业应用中PINN的评估仍然是一个活跃的研究主题。在这项工作中，我们提出了PINNS在非牛顿流体热机械问题上的应用，该问题通常在橡胶日历过程中考虑。我们证明了PINN在处理逆问题和不良问题时的有效性，这些问题是不切实际的，可以通过经典的数值离散方法解决。我们研究了传感器放置的影响以及无监督点对PINNS性能的分布，即从某些部分数据中推断出隐藏的物理领域的问题。我们还研究了PINN从传感器捕获的测量值中识别未知物理参数的能力。在整个工作中，还考虑了嘈杂测量的效果。本文的结果表明，在识别问题中，PINN可以仅使用传感器上的测量结果成功估算未知参数。在未完全定义边界条件的不足问题中，即使传感器的放置和无监督点的分布对PINNS性能产生了很大的影响，我们表明该算法能够从局部测量中推断出隐藏的物理。

我们提出了一种在多孔培养基中使用物理知识的神经网络（PINNS）中多相热力学（THM）过程中的参数鉴定的解决方案策略。我们采用无量纲的理事方程式，特别适合逆问题，我们利用了我们先前工作中开发的顺序多物理Pinn求解器。我们在多个基准问题上验证了所提出的反模型方法，包括Terzaghi的等温固结问题，Barry-Mercer的等温注射产生问题以及非饱和土壤层的非等热整合。我们报告了提出的顺序PINN-THM逆求器的出色性能，从而为将PINNS应用于复杂非线性多物理问题的逆建模铺平了道路。

These notes were compiled as lecture notes for a course developed and taught at the University of the Southern California. They should be accessible to a typical engineering graduate student with a strong background in Applied Mathematics. The main objective of these notes is to introduce a student who is familiar with concepts in linear algebra and partial differential equations to select topics in deep learning. These lecture notes exploit the strong connections between deep learning algorithms and the more conventional techniques of computational physics to achieve two goals. First, they use concepts from computational physics to develop an understanding of deep learning algorithms. Not surprisingly, many concepts in deep learning can be connected to similar concepts in computational physics, and one can utilize this connection to better understand these algorithms. Second, several novel deep learning algorithms can be used to solve challenging problems in computational physics. Thus, they offer someone who is interested in modeling a physical phenomena with a complementary set of tools.

深度学习表明了视觉识别和某些人工智能任务的成功应用。深度学习也被认为是一种强大的工具，具有近似功能的高度灵活性。在本工作中，设计具有所需属性的功能，以近似PDE的解决方案。我们的方法基于后验误差估计，其中解决了错误定位以在神经网络框架内制定误差估计器的伴随问题。开发了一种高效且易于实现的算法，以通过采用双重加权剩余方法来获得多个目标功能的后验误差估计，然后使用神经网络计算原始和伴随解决方案。本研究表明，即使具有相对较少的训练数据，这种基于数据驱动的模型的学习具有卓越的感兴趣量的近似。用数值测试实施例证实了新颖的算法发展。证明了在浅神经网络上使用深神经网络的优点，并且还呈现了收敛增强技术

Deep learning has achieved remarkable success in diverse applications; however, its use in solving partial differential equations (PDEs) has emerged only recently. Here, we present an overview of physics-informed neural networks (PINNs), which embed a PDE into the loss of the neural network using automatic differentiation. The PINN algorithm is simple, and it can be applied to different types of PDEs, including integro-differential equations, fractional PDEs, and stochastic PDEs. Moreover, from the implementation point of view, PINNs solve inverse problems as easily as forward problems. We propose a new residual-based adaptive refinement (RAR) method to improve the training efficiency of PINNs. For pedagogical reasons, we compare the PINN algorithm to a standard finite element method. We also present a Python library for PINNs, DeepXDE, which is designed to serve both as an education tool to be used in the classroom as well as a research tool for solving problems in computational science and engineering. Specifically, DeepXDE can solve forward problems given initial and boundary conditions, as well as inverse problems given some extra measurements. DeepXDE supports complex-geometry domains based on the technique of constructive solid geometry, and enables the user code to be compact, resembling closely the mathematical formulation. We introduce the usage of DeepXDE and its customizability, and we also demonstrate the capability of PINNs and the user-friendliness of DeepXDE for five different examples. More broadly, DeepXDE contributes to the more rapid development of the emerging Scientific Machine Learning field.

标准的神经网络可以近似一般的非线性操作员，要么通过数学运算符的组合（例如，在对流 - 扩散反应部分微分方程中）的组合，要么仅仅是黑匣子，例如黑匣子，例如一个系统系统。第一个神经操作员是基于严格的近似理论于2019年提出的深层操作员网络（DeepOnet）。从那时起，已经发布了其他一些较少的一般操作员，例如，基于图神经网络或傅立叶变换。对于黑匣子系统，对神经操作员的培训仅是数据驱动的，但是如果知道管理方程式可以在培训期间将其纳入损失功能，以开发物理知识的神经操作员。神经操作员可以用作设计问题，不确定性量化，自主系统以及几乎任何需要实时推断的应用程序中的代替代物。此外，通过将它们与相对轻的训练耦合，可以将独立的预训练deponets用作复杂多物理系统的组成部分。在这里，我们介绍了Deponet，傅立叶神经操作员和图神经操作员的评论，以及适当的扩展功能扩展，并突出显示它们在计算机械师中的各种应用中的实用性，包括多孔媒体，流体力学和固体机制， 。

在这项工作中，我们分析了不同程度的不同精度和分段多项式测试函数如何影响变异物理学知情神经网络（VPINN）的收敛速率，同时解决椭圆边界边界值问题，如何影响变异物理学知情神经网络（VPINN）的收敛速率。使用依靠INF-SUP条件的Petrov-Galerkin框架，我们在精确解决方案和合适的计算神经网络的合适的高阶分段插值之间得出了一个先验误差估计。数值实验证实了理论预测并突出了INF-SUP条件的重要性。我们的结果表明，以某种方式违反直觉，对于平滑解决方案，实现高衰减率的最佳策略在选择最低多项式程度的测试功能方面，同时使用适当高精度的正交公式。

Physics-Informed Neural Networks (PINN) are algorithms from deep learning leveraging physical laws by including partial differential equations together with a respective set of boundary and initial conditions as penalty terms into their loss function. In this work, we observe the significant role of correctly weighting the combination of multiple competitive loss functions for training PINNs effectively. To this end, we implement and evaluate different methods aiming at balancing the contributions of multiple terms of the PINNs loss function and their gradients. After reviewing of three existing loss scaling approaches (Learning Rate Annealing, GradNorm and SoftAdapt), we propose a novel self-adaptive loss balancing scheme for PINNs named \emph{ReLoBRaLo} (Relative Loss Balancing with Random Lookback). We extensively evaluate the performance of the aforementioned balancing schemes by solving both forward as well as inverse problems on three benchmark PDEs for PINNs: Burgers' equation, Kirchhoff's plate bending equation and Helmholtz's equation. The results show that ReLoBRaLo is able to consistently outperform the baseline of existing scaling methods in terms of accuracy, while also inducing significantly less computational overhead.

Non-equilibrium chemistry is a key process in the study of the InterStellar Medium (ISM), in particular the formation of molecular clouds and thus stars. However, computationally it is among the most difficult tasks to include in astrophysical simulations, because of the typically high (>40) number of reactions, the short evolutionary timescales (about $10^4$ times less than the ISM dynamical time) and the characteristic non-linearity and stiffness of the associated Ordinary Differential Equations system (ODEs). In this proof of concept work, we show that Physics Informed Neural Networks (PINN) are a viable alternative to traditional ODE time integrators for stiff thermo-chemical systems, i.e. up to molecular hydrogen formation (9 species and 46 reactions). Testing different chemical networks in a wide range of densities ($-2< \log n/{\rm cm}^{-3}< 3$) and temperatures ($1 < \log T/{\rm K}< 5$), we find that a basic architecture can give a comfortable convergence only for simplified chemical systems: to properly capture the sudden chemical and thermal variations a Deep Galerkin Method is needed. Once trained ($\sim 10^3$ GPUhr), the PINN well reproduces the strong non-linear nature of the solutions (errors $\lesssim 10\%$) and can give speed-ups up to a factor of $\sim 200$ with respect to traditional ODE solvers. Further, the latter have completion times that vary by about $\sim 30\%$ for different initial $n$ and $T$, while the PINN method gives negligible variations. Both the speed-up and the potential improvement in load balancing imply that PINN-powered simulations are a very palatable way to solve complex chemical calculation in astrophysical and cosmological problems.

We present a unified hard-constraint framework for solving geometrically complex PDEs with neural networks, where the most commonly used Dirichlet, Neumann, and Robin boundary conditions (BCs) are considered. Specifically, we first introduce the "extra fields" from the mixed finite element method to reformulate the PDEs so as to equivalently transform the three types of BCs into linear forms. Based on the reformulation, we derive the general solutions of the BCs analytically, which are employed to construct an ansatz that automatically satisfies the BCs. With such a framework, we can train the neural networks without adding extra loss terms and thus efficiently handle geometrically complex PDEs, alleviating the unbalanced competition between the loss terms corresponding to the BCs and PDEs. We theoretically demonstrate that the "extra fields" can stabilize the training process. Experimental results on real-world geometrically complex PDEs showcase the effectiveness of our method compared with state-of-the-art baselines.

两个不混溶的流体的位移是多孔介质中流体流动的常见问题。这种问题可以作为局部微分方程（PDE）构成通常被称为Buckley-Leverett（B-L）问题。 B-L问题是一种非线性双曲守护法，众所周知，使用传统的数值方法难以解决。在这里，我们使用物理信息的神经网络（Pinns）使用非凸版通量函数来解决前向双曲线B-L问题。本文的贡献是双重的。首先，我们通过将Oleinik熵条件嵌入神经网络残差来提出一种Pinn方法来解决双曲线B-L问题。我们不使用扩散术语（人工粘度）在残留损失中，但我们依靠PDE的强形式。其次，我们使用ADAM优化器与基于残留的自适应细化（RAR）算法，实现不加权的超低损耗。我们的解决方案方法可以精确地捕获冲击前并产生精确的整体解决方案。我们报告了一个2 x 10-2的L2验证误差和1x 10-6的L2损耗。所提出的方法不需要任何额外的正则化或加权损失以获得这种准确的解决方案。

使用深层学习方法来解决PDE是完全扩张的领域。特别是，物理知识的神经网络，其实现物理域的采样并使用惩罚偏差方程的违反违反部分微分方程的丢失函数。然而，为了解决实际应用中遇到的大规模问题并与PDE的现有数值方法竞争，重要的是设计具有良好可扩展性的平行算法。在传统领域分解方法（DDM）的静脉中，我们认为最近提出的深层DDM方法。我们展示了这种方法的扩展，依赖于使用粗糙空间校正，类似于传统DDM求解器中所做的内容。我们的研究表明，当由于每个迭代时子域之间的瞬时信息交换而增加，当子域的数量增加时，粗校正能够缓解求解器的收敛性的恶化。实验结果表明，我们的方法引起了原始的深度DDM方法的显着加速，降低了额外的计算成本。