In contrast to the rapid digitalization of several industries, agriculture suffers from low adoption of smart farming tools. While AI-driven digital agriculture tools can offer high-performing predictive functionalities, they lack tangible quantitative evidence on their benefits to the farmers. Field experiments can derive such evidence, but are often costly, time consuming and hence limited in scope and scale of application. To this end, we propose an observational causal inference framework for the empirical evaluation of the impact of digital tools on target farm performance indicators (e.g., yield in this case). This way, we can increase farmers' trust via enhancing the transparency of the digital agriculture market and accelerate the adoption of technologies that aim to secure farmer income resilience and global agricultural sustainability. As a case study, we designed and implemented a recommendation system for the optimal sowing time of cotton based on numerical weather predictions, which was used by a farmers' cooperative during the growing season of 2021. We then leverage agricultural knowledge, collected yield data, and environmental information to develop a causal graph of the farm system. Using the back-door criterion, we identify the impact of sowing recommendations on the yield and subsequently estimate it using linear regression, matching, inverse propensity score weighting and meta-learners. The results reveal that a field sown according to our recommendations exhibited a statistically significant yield increase that ranged from 12% to 17%, depending on the method. The effect estimates were robust, as indicated by the agreement among the estimation methods and four successful refutation tests. We argue that this approach can be implemented for decision support systems of other fields, extending their evaluation beyond a performance assessment of internal functionalities.
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In contrast to the rapid digitalization of several industries, agriculture suffers from low adoption of climate-smart farming tools. Even though AI-driven digital agriculture can offer high-performing predictive functionalities, it lacks tangible quantitative evidence on its benefits to the farmers. Field experiments can derive such evidence, but are often costly and time consuming. To this end, we propose an observational causal inference framework for the empirical evaluation of the impact of digital tools on target farm performance indicators. This way, we can increase farmers' trust by enhancing the transparency of the digital agriculture market, and in turn accelerate the adoption of technologies that aim to increase productivity and secure a sustainable and resilient agriculture against a changing climate. As a case study, we perform an empirical evaluation of a recommendation system for optimal cotton sowing, which was used by a farmers' cooperative during the growing season of 2021. We leverage agricultural knowledge to develop a causal graph of the farm system, we use the back-door criterion to identify the impact of recommendations on the yield and subsequently estimate it using several methods on observational data. The results show that a field sown according to our recommendations enjoyed a significant increase in yield (12% to 17%).
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To fight climate change and accommodate the increasing population, global crop production has to be strengthened. To achieve the "sustainable intensification" of agriculture, transforming it from carbon emitter to carbon sink is a priority, and understanding the environmental impact of agricultural management practices is a fundamental prerequisite to that. At the same time, the global agricultural landscape is deeply heterogeneous, with differences in climate, soil, and land use inducing variations in how agricultural systems respond to farmer actions. The "personalization" of sustainable agriculture with the provision of locally adapted management advice is thus a necessary condition for the efficient uplift of green metrics, and an integral development in imminent policies. Here, we formulate personalized sustainable agriculture as a Conditional Average Treatment Effect estimation task and use Causal Machine Learning for tackling it. Leveraging climate data, land use information and employing Double Machine Learning, we estimate the heterogeneous effect of sustainable practices on the field-level Soil Organic Carbon content in Lithuania. We thus provide a data-driven perspective for targeting sustainable practices and effectively expanding the global carbon sink.
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因果关系是理解世界的科学努力的基本组成部分。不幸的是,在心理学和社会科学中,因果关系仍然是禁忌。由于越来越多的建议采用因果方法进行研究的重要性,我们重新制定了心理学研究方法的典型方法,以使不可避免的因果理论与其余的研究渠道协调。我们提出了一个新的过程,该过程始于从因果发现和机器学习的融合中纳入技术的发展,验证和透明的理论形式规范。然后,我们提出将完全指定的理论模型的复杂性降低到与给定目标假设相关的基本子模型中的方法。从这里,我们确定利息量是否可以从数据中估算出来,如果是的,则建议使用半参数机器学习方法来估计因果关系。总体目标是介绍新的研究管道,该管道可以(a)促进与测试因果理论的愿望兼容的科学询问(b)鼓励我们的理论透明代表作为明确的数学对象,(c)将我们的统计模型绑定到我们的统计模型中该理论的特定属性,因此减少了理论到模型间隙通常引起的规范不足问题,以及(d)产生因果关系和可重复性的结果和估计。通过具有现实世界数据的教学示例来证明该过程,我们以摘要和讨论来结论。
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Crop phenology is crucial information for crop yield estimation and agricultural management. Traditionally, phenology has been observed from the ground; however Earth observation, weather and soil data have been used to capture the physiological growth of crops. In this work, we propose a new approach for the within-season phenology estimation for cotton at the field level. For this, we exploit a variety of Earth observation vegetation indices (derived from Sentinel-2) and numerical simulations of atmospheric and soil parameters. Our method is unsupervised to address the ever-present problem of sparse and scarce ground truth data that makes most supervised alternatives impractical in real-world scenarios. We applied fuzzy c-means clustering to identify the principal phenological stages of cotton and then used the cluster membership weights to further predict the transitional phases between adjacent stages. In order to evaluate our models, we collected 1,285 crop growth ground observations in Orchomenos, Greece. We introduced a new collection protocol, assigning up to two phenology labels that represent the primary and secondary growth stage in the field and thus indicate when stages are transitioning. Our model was tested against a baseline model that allowed to isolate the random agreement and evaluate its true competence. The results showed that our model considerably outperforms the baseline one, which is promising considering the unsupervised nature of the approach. The limitations and the relevant future work are thoroughly discussed. The ground observations are formatted in an ready-to-use dataset and will be available at https://github.com/Agri-Hub/cotton-phenology-dataset upon publication.
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大型观察数据越来越多地提供健康,经济和社会科学等学科,研究人员对因果问题而不是预测感兴趣。在本文中,从旨在调查参与学校膳食计划对健康指标的实证研究,研究了使用非参数回归的方法估算异质治疗效果的问题。首先,我们介绍了与观察或非完全随机数据进行因果推断相关的设置和相关的问题,以及如何在统计学习工具的帮助下解决这些问题。然后,我们审查并制定现有最先进的框架的统一分类,允许通过非参数回归模型来估算单个治疗效果。在介绍模型选择问题的简要概述后,我们说明了一些关于三种不同模拟研究的方法的性能。我们通过展示一些关于学校膳食计划数据的实证分析的一些方法的使用来结束。
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我们应用因果机学习算法来评估营销干预措施的因果影响,即优惠券活动,对零售商的销售。除了评估不同类型的优惠券的平均影响外,我们还调查了不同客户群的因果关系效应的异质性,例如,在相对较高的客户与先前购买相对较高的客户之间。最后,我们使用最佳政策学习来确定(以数据驱动方式)哪些客户群应针对优惠券活动,以最大程度地提高营销干预措施在销售方面的有效性。我们发现,在检查的五个优惠券类别中,只有两个,即适用于药店产品和其他食品产品类别的优惠券,对零售商销售具有统计学上的显着积极影响。对小组平均治疗效果的评估表明,在商店的先前购买中定义的客户群中,优惠券提供的影响有很大的差异,药品店优惠券在先前购买较高的客户和其他食品优惠券中特别有效先前购买较低的客户。我们的研究提供了一种用例,用于在业务分析中应用因果机学习,以评估特定公司政策(例如营销活动)对决策支持的因果影响。
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在科学研究和现实世界应用的许多领域中,非实验数据的因果效应的无偏估计对于理解数据的基础机制以及对有效响应或干预措施的决策至关重要。从不同角度对这个具有挑战性的问题进行了大量研究。对于数据中的因果效应估计,始终做出诸如马尔可夫财产,忠诚和因果关系之类的假设。在假设下,仍然需要一组协变量或基本因果图之类的全部知识。一个实用的挑战是,在许多应用程序中,没有这样的全部知识或只有某些部分知识。近年来,研究已经出现了基于图形因果模型的搜索策略,以从数据中发现有用的知识,以进行因果效应估计,并具有一些温和的假设,并在应对实际挑战方面表现出了诺言。在这项调查中,我们回顾了方法,并关注数据驱动方法所面临的挑战。我们讨论数据驱动方法的假设,优势和局限性。我们希望这篇综述将激励更多的研究人员根据图形因果建模设计更好的数据驱动方法,以解决因果效应估计的具有挑战性的问题。
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发现新药是寻求并证明因果关系。作为一种新兴方法利用人类的知识和创造力,数据和机器智能,因果推论具有减少认知偏见并改善药物发现决策的希望。尽管它已经在整个价值链中应用了,但因子推理的概念和实践对许多从业者来说仍然晦涩难懂。本文提供了有关因果推理的非技术介绍,审查了其最新应用,并讨论了在药物发现和开发中采用因果语言的机会和挑战。
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我们的许多实验旨在发现数据生成机制(即现象)背后的原因和效果。最重要的是,阐明一个模型,该模型可以使我们能够进一步探索手头上的现象和/或允许我们准确预测它。从根本上讲,这种模型可能是通过因果方法来得出的(与观察或经验平均值相反)。在这种方法中,需要因果发现来创建因果模型,然后可以应用该因果模型来推断干预措施的影响,并回答我们可能拥有的任何假设问题(即以什么IFS的形式)。本文为因果发现和因果推断提供了一个案例,并与传统的机器学习方法进行了对比。都是从公民和结构工程的角度来看。更具体地说,本文概述了因果关系的关键原理以及因果发现和因果推断的最常用算法和包。最后,本文还提出了一系列示例和案例研究,介绍了如何为我们的领域采用因果概念。
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关于日益增长的直播媒介的一种普遍信念是,其价值在于其“实时”组成部分。我们通过比较实时事件需求的价格弹性如何在直播中和之后的生活中进行了比较,从而研究了这种信念。我们使用来自大型直播平台的独特且丰富的数据来做到这一点,该数据使消费者可以在流中期后购买录制版本的直播版本。在我们背景下的一个挑战是,存在高维混杂因素,其与治疗政策(即价格)和兴趣结果(即需求)的关系是复杂的,并且仅部分知道。我们通过使用广义正交随机森林框架来解决这一挑战,以进行异质治疗效果估计。我们发现在整个事件生命周期中,需求价格弹性的时间弹性都显着。具体而言,随着时间的流逝,需求变得越来越敏感,直到直播一天,那天就变成了无弹性。在生活后的时期,对录制版本的需求仍然对价格敏感,但远低于在播放前的时期。我们进一步表明,价格弹性的这种时间变化是由此类事件固有的质量不确定性以及在直播过程中与内容创建者进行实时互动的机会所驱动的。
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估计平均因果效应的理想回归(如果有)是什么?我们在离散协变量的设置中研究了这个问题,从而得出了各种分层估计器的有限样本方差的表达式。这种方法阐明了许多广泛引用的结果的基本统计现象。我们的博览会结合了研究因果效应估计的三种不同的方法论传统的见解:潜在结果,因果图和具有加性误差的结构模型。
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数据科学任务可以被视为了解数据的感觉或测试关于它的假设。从数据推断的结论可以极大地指导我们做出信息做出决定。大数据使我们能够与机器学习结合执行无数的预测任务,例如鉴定患有某种疾病的高风险患者并采取可预防措施。然而,医疗保健从业者不仅仅是仅仅预测的内容 - 它们也对输入特征和临床结果之间的原因关系感兴趣。了解这些关系将有助于医生治疗患者并有效降低风险。通常通过随机对照试验鉴定因果关系。当科学家和研究人员转向观察研究并试图吸引推论时,这种试验通常是不可行的。然而,观察性研究也可能受到选择和/或混淆偏差的影响,这可能导致错误的因果结论。在本章中,我们将尝试突出传统机器学习和统计方法中可能出现的一些缺点,以分析观察数据,特别是在医疗保健数据分析域中。我们将讨论因果化推理和方法,以发现医疗领域的观测研究原因。此外,我们将展示因果推断在解决某些普通机器学习问题等中的应用,例如缺少数据和模型可运输性。最后,我们将讨论将加强学习与因果关系相结合的可能性,作为反击偏见的一种方式。
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估计空间变化的干预对空间变化结果的因果影响可能会受到非本地混杂(NLC)的影响,这种现象可能会估计给定单位的处理和结果部分由协方差估计。附近的其他单元。特别是,NLC是评估环境政策和气候事件对健康相关结果(例如空气污染暴露)的影响的挑战。本文首先使用潜在结果框架对NLC进行正式化,从而与因果干扰的相关现象进行了比较。然后,它提出了一个称为“ weather2vec”的广泛适用框架,该框架使用平衡分数理论来学习非本地信息的表示形式,以定义为每个观察单元定义的标量或向量使用因果推理方法。该框架在一项仿真研究和两项关于空气污染的案例研究中进行了评估,天气是(本质上是区域)已知的混杂因素。
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This review presents empirical researchers with recent advances in causal inference, and stresses the paradigmatic shifts that must be undertaken in moving from traditional statistical analysis to causal analysis of multivariate data. Special emphasis is placed on the assumptions that underly all causal inferences, the languages used in formulating those assumptions, the conditional nature of all causal and counterfactual claims, and the methods that have been developed for the assessment of such claims. These advances are illustrated using a general theory of causation based on the Structural Causal Model (SCM) described in Pearl (2000a), which subsumes and unifies other approaches to causation, and provides a coherent mathematical foundation for the analysis of causes and counterfactuals. In particular, the paper surveys the development of mathematical tools for inferring (from a combination of data and assumptions) answers to three types of causal queries: (1) queries about the effects of potential interventions, (also called "causal effects" or "policy evaluation") (2) queries about probabilities of counterfactuals, (including assessment of "regret," "attribution" or "causes of effects") and (3) queries about direct and indirect effects (also known as "mediation"). Finally, the paper defines the formal and conceptual relationships between the structural and potential-outcome frameworks and presents tools for a symbiotic analysis that uses the strong features of both.
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为目标疾病开发新药物是一项耗时且昂贵的任务,药物重新利用已成为药物开发领域的流行话题。随着许多健康索赔数据可用,已经对数据进行了许多研究。现实世界的数据嘈杂,稀疏,并且具有许多混杂因素。此外,许多研究表明,药物的作用在人群中是异质的。近年来已经出现了许多有关估计异构治疗效果(HTE)(HTE)的高级机器学习模型,并已应用于计量经济学和机器学习社区。这些研究将医学和药物开发视为主要应用领域,但是从HTE方法论到药物开发的转化研究有限。我们旨在将HTE方法介绍到医疗保健领域,并在通过基准实验进行医疗保健行政索赔数据进行基准实验时提供可行性考虑。另外,我们希望使用基准实验来展示如何将模型应用于医疗保健研究时如何解释和评估模型。通过将最近的HTE技术引入生物医学信息学社区的广泛读者,我们希望通过机器学习促进广泛采用因果推断。我们还希望提供HTE具有个性化药物有效性的可行性。
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尽管近期因因果推断领域的进展,迄今为止没有关于从观察数据的收集治疗效应估算的方法。对临床实践的结果是,当缺乏随机试验的结果时,没有指导在真实情景中似乎有效的指导。本文提出了一种务实的方法,以获得从观察性研究的治疗效果的初步但稳健地估算,为前线临床医生提供对其治疗策略的信心程度。我们的研究设计适用于一个公开问题,估算Covid-19密集护理患者的拳击机动的治疗效果。
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Many commodity crops have growth stages during which they are particularly vulnerable to stress-induced yield loss. In-season crop progress information is useful for quantifying crop risk, and satellite remote sensing (RS) can be used to track progress at regional scales. At present, all existing RS-based crop progress estimation (CPE) methods which target crop-specific stages rely on ground truth data for training/calibration. This reliance on ground survey data confines CPE methods to surveyed regions, limiting their utility. In this study, a new method is developed for conducting RS-based in-season CPE in unsurveyed regions by combining data from surveyed regions with synthetic crop progress data generated for an unsurveyed region. Corn-growing zones in Argentina were used as surrogate 'unsurveyed' regions. Existing weather generation, crop growth, and optical radiative transfer models were linked to produce synthetic weather, crop progress, and canopy reflectance data. A neural network (NN) method based upon bi-directional Long Short-Term Memory was trained separately on surveyed data, synthetic data, and two different combinations of surveyed and synthetic data. A stopping criterion was developed which uses the weighted divergence of surveyed and synthetic data validation loss. Net F1 scores across all crop progress stages increased by 8.7% when trained on a combination of surveyed region and synthetic data, and overall performance was only 21% lower than when the NN was trained on surveyed data and applied in the US Midwest. Performance gain from synthetic data was greatest in zones with dual planting windows, while the inclusion of surveyed region data from the US Midwest helped mitigate NN sensitivity to noise in NDVI data. Overall results suggest in-season CPE in other unsurveyed regions may be possible with increased quantity and variety of synthetic crop progress data.
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因果关系的观察性研究需要调整混杂因素。在这些因素定义明确的单独随机变量的表格环境中,人们可以很好地理解混杂的效果。但是,在公共政策,生态学和医学中,决策通常是在非尾部环境中做出的,这些设置由图像中检测到的模式或对象(例如,地图,卫星或层析成像图像)所告知。使用此类图像进行因果推理会带来机会,因为图像中的对象可能与感兴趣的治疗和结果有关。在这些情况下,我们依靠图像来调整混淆,但观察到的数据并未直接标记重要对象的存在。在现实世界中的激励中,我们正式化了这一挑战,如何处理,以及哪些条件足以识别和估计因果关系。我们使用仿真实验分析有限样本的性能,并使用采用机器学习模型来估计图像混淆的倾向调整算法估算效果。我们的实验还检查了对图像模式机制错误指定的敏感性。最后,我们使用我们的方法来估计卫星图像中政策干预对非洲社区贫困的影响。
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COVID-19的大流行提出了对多个领域决策者的流行预测的重要性,从公共卫生到整个经济。虽然预测流行进展经常被概念化为类似于天气预测,但是它具有一些关键的差异,并且仍然是一项非平凡的任务。疾病的传播受到人类行为,病原体动态,天气和环境条件的多种混杂因素的影响。由于政府公共卫生和资助机构的倡议,捕获以前无法观察到的方面的丰富数据来源的可用性增加了研究的兴趣。这尤其是在“以数据为中心”的解决方案上进行的一系列工作,这些解决方案通过利用非传统数据源以及AI和机器学习的最新创新来增强我们的预测能力的潜力。这项调查研究了各种数据驱动的方法论和实践进步,并介绍了一个概念框架来导航它们。首先,我们列举了与流行病预测相关的大量流行病学数据集和新的数据流,捕获了各种因素,例如有症状的在线调查,零售和商业,流动性,基因组学数据等。接下来,我们将讨论关注最近基于数据驱动的统计和深度学习方法的方法和建模范式,以及将机械模型知识域知识与统计方法的有效性和灵活性相结合的新型混合模型类别。我们还讨论了这些预测系统的现实部署中出现的经验和挑战,包括预测信息。最后,我们重点介绍了整个预测管道中发现的一些挑战和开放问题。
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