We propose an approach to self-supervised representation learning based on maximizing mutual information between features extracted from multiple views of a shared context. For example, one could produce multiple views of a local spatiotemporal context by observing it from different locations (e.g., camera positions within a scene), and via different modalities (e.g., tactile, auditory, or visual). Or, an ImageNet image could provide a context from which one produces multiple views by repeatedly applying data augmentation. Maximizing mutual information between features extracted from these views requires capturing information about high-level factors whose influence spans multiple views -e.g., presence of certain objects or occurrence of certain events. Following our proposed approach, we develop a model which learns image representations that significantly outperform prior methods on the tasks we consider. Most notably, using self-supervised learning, our model learns representations which achieve 68.1% accuracy on Im-ageNet using standard linear evaluation. This beats prior results by over 12% and concurrent results by 7%. When we extend our model to use mixture-based representations, segmentation behaviour emerges as a natural side-effect. Our code is available online: https://github.com/Philip-Bachman/amdim-public.

This work investigates unsupervised learning of representations by maximizing mutual information between an input and the output of a deep neural network encoder. Importantly, we show that structure matters: incorporating knowledge about locality in the input into the objective can significantly improve a representation's suitability for downstream tasks. We further control characteristics of the representation by matching to a prior distribution adversarially. Our method, which we call Deep InfoMax (DIM), outperforms a number of popular unsupervised learning methods and compares favorably with fully-supervised learning on several classification tasks in with some standard architectures. DIM opens new avenues for unsupervised learning of representations and is an important step towards flexible formulations of representation learning objectives for specific end-goals.

This paper presents SimCLR: a simple framework for contrastive learning of visual representations. We simplify recently proposed contrastive selfsupervised learning algorithms without requiring specialized architectures or a memory bank. In order to understand what enables the contrastive prediction tasks to learn useful representations, we systematically study the major components of our framework. We show that (1) composition of data augmentations plays a critical role in defining effective predictive tasks, (2) introducing a learnable nonlinear transformation between the representation and the contrastive loss substantially improves the quality of the learned representations, and (3) contrastive learning benefits from larger batch sizes and more training steps compared to supervised learning. By combining these findings, we are able to considerably outperform previous methods for self-supervised and semi-supervised learning on ImageNet. A linear classifier trained on self-supervised representations learned by Sim-CLR achieves 76.5% top-1 accuracy, which is a 7% relative improvement over previous state-ofthe-art, matching the performance of a supervised ResNet-50. When fine-tuned on only 1% of the labels, we achieve 85.8% top-5 accuracy, outperforming AlexNet with 100× fewer labels. 1

Humans view the world through many sensory channels, e.g., the long-wavelength light channel, viewed by the left eye, or the high-frequency vibrations channel, heard by the right ear. Each view is noisy and incomplete, but important factors, such as physics, geometry, and semantics, tend to be shared between all views (e.g., a "dog" can be seen, heard, and felt). We investigate the classic hypothesis that a powerful representation is one that models view-invariant factors. We study this hypothesis under the framework of multiview contrastive learning, where we learn a representation that aims to maximize mutual information between different views of the same scene but is otherwise compact. Our approach scales to any number of views, and is viewagnostic. We analyze key properties of the approach that make it work, finding that the contrastive loss outperforms a popular alternative based on cross-view prediction, and that the more views we learn from, the better the resulting representation captures underlying scene semantics. Our approach achieves state-of-the-art results on image and video unsupervised learning benchmarks.

Human observers can learn to recognize new categories of images from a handful of examples, yet doing so with artificial ones remains an open challenge. We hypothesize that data-efficient recognition is enabled by representations which make the variability in natural signals more predictable. We therefore revisit and improve Contrastive Predictive Coding, an unsupervised objective for learning such representations. This new implementation produces features which support state-of-theart linear classification accuracy on the ImageNet dataset. When used as input for non-linear classification with deep neural networks, this representation allows us to use 2-5× less labels than classifiers trained directly on image pixels. Finally, this unsupervised representation substantially improves transfer learning to object detection on the PASCAL VOC dataset, surpassing fully supervised pre-trained ImageNet classifiers.

在深度学习研究中，自学学习（SSL）引起了极大的关注，引起了计算机视觉和遥感社区的兴趣。尽管计算机视觉取得了很大的成功，但SSL在地球观测领域的大部分潜力仍然锁定。在本文中，我们对在遥感的背景下为计算机视觉的SSL概念和最新发展提供了介绍，并回顾了SSL中的概念和最新发展。此外，我们在流行的遥感数据集上提供了现代SSL算法的初步基准，从而验证了SSL在遥感中的潜力，并提供了有关数据增强的扩展研究。最后，我们确定了SSL未来研究的有希望的方向的地球观察（SSL4EO），以铺平了两个领域的富有成效的相互作用。

对比表示学习旨在通过估计数据的多个视图之间的共享信息来获得有用的表示形式。在这里，数据增强的选择对学会表示的质量很敏感：随着更难的应用，数据增加了，视图共享更多与任务相关的信息，但也可以妨碍表示代表的概括能力。在此激励的基础上，我们提出了一种新的强大的对比度学习计划，即r \'enyicl，可以通过利用r \'enyi差异来有效地管理更艰难的增强。我们的方法建立在r \'enyi差异的变异下限基础上，但是由于差异很大，对变异方法的使用是不切实际的。要应对这一挑战，我们提出了一个新颖的对比目标，该目标是进行变异估计的新型对比目标偏斜r \'enyi的分歧，并提供理论保证，以确保偏差差异如何导致稳定训练。我们表明，r \'enyi对比度学习目标执行先天的硬性负面样本和易于选择的阳性抽样学习有用的功能并忽略滋扰功能。通过在Imagenet上进行实验，我们表明，r \'enyi对比度学习具有更强的增强性能优于其他自我监督的方法，而无需额外的正则化或计算上的开销。图形和表格，显示了与其他对比方法相比的经验增益。

我们从统计依赖性角度接近自我监督的图像表示学习，提出与希尔伯特 - 施密特独立性标准（SSL-HSIC）自我监督的学习。 SSL-HSIC最大化图像和图像标识的变换表示之间的依赖性，同时最小化这些表示的核化方差。该框架产生了对Infonce的新了解，在不同转换之间的相互信息（MI）上的变分下限。虽然已知MI本身具有可能导致学习无意义的表示的病理学，但其绑定表现得更好：我们表明它隐含地近似于SSL-HSIC（具有略微不同的规范器）。我们的方法还向我们深入了解Byol，一种无与伦比的SSL方法，因为SSL-HSIC类似地了解了当地的样本邻居。 SSL-HSIC允许我们在批量大小中直接在时间线性上直接优化统计依赖性，而无需限制数据假设或间接相互信息估计。 SSL-HSIC培训或没有目标网络，SSL-HSIC与Imagenet的标准线性评估相匹配，半监督学习和转移到其他分类和视觉任务，如语义分割，深度估计和对象识别等。代码可在https://github.com/deepmind/ssl_hsic提供。

学习概括不见于没有人类监督的有效视觉表现是一个基本问题，以便将机器学习施加到各种各样的任务。最近，分别是SIMCLR和BYOL的两个自我监督方法，对比学习和潜在自动启动的家庭取得了重大进展。在这项工作中，我们假设向这些算法添加显式信息压缩产生更好，更强大的表示。我们通过开发与条件熵瓶颈（CEB）目标兼容的SIMCLR和BYOL配方来验证这一点，允许我们衡量并控制学习的表示中的压缩量，并观察它们对下游任务的影响。此外，我们探讨了Lipschitz连续性和压缩之间的关系，显示了我们学习的编码器的嘴唇峰常数上的易触摸下限。由于Lipschitz连续性与稳健性密切相关，这为什么压缩模型更加强大提供了新的解释。我们的实验证实，向SIMCLR和BYOL添加压缩显着提高了线性评估精度和模型鲁棒性，跨各种域移位。特别是，Byol的压缩版本与Reset-50的ImageNet上的76.0％的线性评估精度达到了76.0％的直线评价精度，并使用Reset-50 2x的78.8％。

This paper presents Prototypical Contrastive Learning (PCL), an unsupervised representation learning method that bridges contrastive learning with clustering. PCL not only learns low-level features for the task of instance discrimination, but more importantly, it encodes semantic structures discovered by clustering into the learned embedding space. Specifically, we introduce prototypes as latent variables to help find the maximum-likelihood estimation of the network parameters in an Expectation-Maximization framework. We iteratively perform E-step as finding the distribution of prototypes via clustering and M-step as optimizing the network via contrastive learning. We propose ProtoNCE loss, a generalized version of the InfoNCE loss for contrastive learning, which encourages representations to be closer to their assigned prototypes. PCL outperforms state-of-the-art instance-wise contrastive learning methods on multiple benchmarks with substantial improvement in low-resource transfer learning. Code and pretrained models are available at https://github.com/salesforce/PCL.

跨图像建立视觉对应是一项具有挑战性且必不可少的任务。最近，已经提出了大量的自我监督方法，以更好地学习视觉对应的表示。但是，我们发现这些方法通常无法利用语义信息，并且在低级功能的匹配方面过度融合。相反，人类的视觉能够将不同的物体区分为跟踪的借口。受此范式的启发，我们建议学习语义意识的细粒对应关系。首先，我们证明语义对应是通过一组丰富的图像级别自我监督方法隐式获得的。我们进一步设计了一个像素级的自我监督学习目标，该目标专门针对细粒的对应关系。对于下游任务，我们将这两种互补的对应表示形式融合在一起，表明它们是协同增强性能的。我们的方法超过了先前的最先进的自我监督方法，使用卷积网络在各种视觉通信任务上，包括视频对象分割，人姿势跟踪和人类部分跟踪。

Previous work on action representation learning focused on global representations for short video clips. In contrast, many practical applications, such as video alignment, strongly demand learning the intensive representation of long videos. In this paper, we introduce a new framework of contrastive action representation learning (CARL) to learn frame-wise action representation in a self-supervised or weakly-supervised manner, especially for long videos. Specifically, we introduce a simple but effective video encoder that considers both spatial and temporal context by combining convolution and transformer. Inspired by the recent massive progress in self-supervised learning, we propose a new sequence contrast loss (SCL) applied to two related views obtained by expanding a series of spatio-temporal data in two versions. One is the self-supervised version that optimizes embedding space by minimizing KL-divergence between sequence similarity of two augmented views and prior Gaussian distribution of timestamp distance. The other is the weakly-supervised version that builds more sample pairs among videos using video-level labels by dynamic time wrapping (DTW). Experiments on FineGym, PennAction, and Pouring datasets show that our method outperforms previous state-of-the-art by a large margin for downstream fine-grained action classification and even faster inference. Surprisingly, although without training on paired videos like in previous works, our self-supervised version also shows outstanding performance in video alignment and fine-grained frame retrieval tasks.

Combining clustering and representation learning is one of the most promising approaches for unsupervised learning of deep neural networks. However, doing so naively leads to ill posed learning problems with degenerate solutions. In this paper, we propose a novel and principled learning formulation that addresses these issues. The method is obtained by maximizing the information between labels and input data indices. We show that this criterion extends standard crossentropy minimization to an optimal transport problem, which we solve efficiently for millions of input images and thousands of labels using a fast variant of the Sinkhorn-Knopp algorithm. The resulting method is able to self-label visual data so as to train highly competitive image representations without manual labels. Our method achieves state of the art representation learning performance for AlexNet and ResNet-50 on SVHN, CIFAR-10, CIFAR-100 and ImageNet and yields the first self-supervised AlexNet that outperforms the supervised Pascal VOC detection baseline. Code and models are available 1 .

我们通过以端到端的方式对大规模未标记的数据集进行分类，呈现扭曲，简单和理论上可解释的自我监督的表示学习方法。我们使用Softmax操作终止的暹罗网络，以产生两个增强图像的双类分布。没有监督，我们强制执行不同增强的班级分布。但是，只需最小化增强之间的分歧将导致折叠解决方案，即，输出所有图像的相同类概率分布。在这种情况下，留下有关输入图像的信息。为了解决这个问题，我们建议最大化输入和课程预测之间的互信息。具体地，我们最小化每个样品的分布的熵，使每个样品的课程预测是对每个样品自信的预测，并最大化平均分布的熵，以使不同样品的预测变得不同。以这种方式，扭曲可以自然地避免没有特定设计的折叠解决方案，例如非对称网络，停止梯度操作或动量编码器。因此，扭曲优于各种任务的最先进的方法。特别是，在半监督学习中，扭曲令人惊讶地表现出令人惊讶的是，使用Reset-50作为骨干的1％ImageNet标签实现61.2％的顶级精度，以前的最佳结果为6.2％。代码和预先训练的模型是给出的：https://github.com/byteDance/twist

We present a self-supervised Contrastive Video Representation Learning (CVRL) method to learn spatiotemporal visual representations from unlabeled videos. Our representations are learned using a contrastive loss, where two augmented clips from the same short video are pulled together in the embedding space, while clips from different videos are pushed away. We study what makes for good data augmentations for video self-supervised learning and find that both spatial and temporal information are crucial. We carefully design data augmentations involving spatial and temporal cues. Concretely, we propose a temporally consistent spatial augmentation method to impose strong spatial augmentations on each frame of the video while maintaining the temporal consistency across frames. We also propose a sampling-based temporal augmentation method to avoid overly enforcing invariance on clips that are distant in time. On Kinetics-600, a linear classifier trained on the representations learned by CVRL achieves 70.4% top-1 accuracy with a 3D-ResNet-50 (R3D-50) backbone, outperforming ImageNet supervised pre-training by 15.7% and SimCLR unsupervised pre-training by 18.8% using the same inflated R3D-50. The performance of CVRL can be further improved to 72.9% with a larger R3D-152 (2× filters) backbone, significantly closing the gap between unsupervised and supervised video representation learning. Our code and models will be available at https://github.com/tensorflow/models/tree/master/official/.

使用超越欧几里德距离的神经网络，深入的Bregman分歧测量数据点的分歧，并且能够捕获分布的发散。在本文中，我们提出了深深的布利曼对视觉表现的对比学习的分歧，我们的目标是通过基于功能Bregman分歧培训额外的网络来提高自我监督学习中使用的对比损失。与完全基于单点之间的分歧的传统对比学学习方法相比，我们的框架可以捕获分布之间的发散，这提高了学习表示的质量。我们展示了传统的对比损失和我们提出的分歧损失优于基线的结合，并且最先前的自我监督和半监督学习的大多数方法在多个分类和对象检测任务和数据集中。此外，学习的陈述在转移到其他数据集和任务时概括了良好。源代码和我们的型号可用于补充，并将通过纸张释放。

我们提出了Clip-Lite，一种通过与文本注释的特征对齐方式进行视觉表示学习的信息有效方法。与先前提出的剪辑模型相比，剪辑液在优化其对比学学习目标期间只需要一个负图像文本样本对。我们通过利用信息有效的较低限制来实现这一点，以最大化两个输入模态之间的相互信息。这允许剪辑Lite培训，在获得比夹子的更好的性能的同时具有显着减少的数据和批量尺寸。我们通过在Coco-Tablions数据集上预先绘制来评估剪贴画并对其他数据集进行测试传输。 Clip-Lite在Pascal VOC分类上获得+ 15.4％的映射绝对增益，并在ImageNet上获得A + 22.1％的前1个精度增益，同时与其他更复杂，文本监督模型相当或优越。 Clip-Lite还优于剪辑图像和文本检索，零拍分类和视觉接地。最后，通过在表示学习期间执行显式图像文本对齐，我们显示Clip-Lite可以利用语言语义来鼓励可以在下游任务中使用的无偏见的视觉表示。

最近无监督的表示学习方法已经通过学习表示不变的数据增强，例如随机裁剪和彩色抖动等数据增强来生效。然而，如果依赖于数据增强的特征，例如，位置或色敏，则这种不变性可能对下游任务有害。这不是一个不监督学习的问题;我们发现即使在监督学习中也会发生这种情况，因为它还学会预测实例所有增强样本的相同标签。为避免此类失败并获得更广泛的表示，我们建议优化辅助自我监督损失，创建的AGESELF，了解两个随机增强样本之间的增强参数（例如，裁剪位置，颜色调整强度）的差异。我们的直觉是，Augelf鼓励在学习的陈述中保留增强信息，这可能有利于其可转让性。此外，Augself可以很容易地纳入最近的最先进的表示学习方法，其额外的培训成本可忽略不计。广泛的实验表明，我们的简单想法一直在各种转移学习情景中始终如一地提高了由监督和无监督方法所学到的表示的可转移性。代码可在https://github.com/hankook/augsfir。

We introduce Bootstrap Your Own Latent (BYOL), a new approach to self-supervised image representation learning. BYOL relies on two neural networks, referred to as online and target networks, that interact and learn from each other. From an augmented view of an image, we train the online network to predict the target network representation of the same image under a different augmented view. At the same time, we update the target network with a slow-moving average of the online network. While state-of-the art methods rely on negative pairs, BYOL achieves a new state of the art without them. BYOL reaches 74.3% top-1 classification accuracy on ImageNet using a linear evaluation with a ResNet-50 architecture and 79.6% with a larger ResNet. We show that BYOL performs on par or better than the current state of the art on both transfer and semi-supervised benchmarks. Our implementation and pretrained models are given on GitHub. 3 * Equal contribution; the order of first authors was randomly selected.

我们在过去十年中目睹了监督学习范式的大规模增长。监督学习需要大量标记的数据来达到最先进的性能。但是，标记样本需要很多人的注释。为避免标签数据的成本，提出了自我监督的方法来利用大部分可用的未标记数据。本研究对特征表示的自我监督范式的最新发展进行了全面和富有洞察力的调查和分析。在本文中，我们调查了影响不同环境下自我监督有用性的因素。我们展示了一些关于自我监督，生成和对比方法的两种不同方法的关键见解。我们还调查了监督对抗培训的局限性以及自我监督如何帮助克服这些限制。然后，我们继续讨论有效利用自我监督对视觉任务的局限性和挑战。最后，我们突出了一些打开的问题，并指出了未来的研究方向。