尽管在数据增强中的混合成功，但由于自然语言的离散和可变性质，因此对自然语言处理（NLP）任务的适用性受到限制。因此，最近的研究依赖于域的特定启发式和手动制作的资源，例如词典，以便在NLP中应用混合。在本文中，我们为数据增强的目的提出了一种无监督的学习方法，以便为数据增强而言，我们将作为“学习用于数据增强”（LINDA），这不需要任何启发式或手动制作资源但学习通过自然语言歧管在任何一对自然语言句子之间插入。在经验展示Linda的插值能力之后，我们表明Linda确实允许我们在NLP中无缝地应用混合，并导致文本分类中的更好的概括和域名。

本文提出了一种简单但有效的基于插值的数据增强方法，称为Doublemix，以改善模型在文本分类中的鲁棒性。 Doublemix首先利用几个简单的增强操作来为每个培训数据生成几个扰动的样本，然后使用扰动的数据和原始数据在神经模型的隐藏空间中进行两步插值。具体而言，它首先将扰动的数据混合到合成样本中，然后混合原始数据和合成的扰动数据。 Doublemix通过学习隐藏空间中的“转移”功能来增强模型的鲁棒性。在六个文本分类基准数据集上，我们的方法优于几种流行的文本增强方法，包括令牌级别，句子级别和隐藏级数据增强技术。此外，低资源设置中的实验表明，当培训数据稀缺时，我们的方法一致地改善了模型的性能。广泛的消融研究和案例研究证实，我们方法的每个组成部分都有助于最终表现，并表明我们的方法在具有挑战性的反例中表现出卓越的表现。此外，视觉分析表明，我们方法生成的文本特征是高度可解释的。我们的本文代码可以在https://github.com/declare-lab/doublemix.git上找到。

数据增强是解决过度合适的有效方法。许多以前的作品提出了针对NLP的不同数据增强策略，例如注入噪声，单词更换，反向翻译等。虽然有效，但它们错过了语言的一个重要特征 - 复杂性，复杂表达的含义是由其子构建的部分。在此激励的情况下，我们提出了一种称为Treemix的自然语言理解的组成数据增强方法。具体而言，Treemix利用选区解析树将句子分解为组成型子结构和混合数据增强技术以重组它们以生成新的句子。与以前的方法相比，Treemix引入了更大的多样性，并鼓励模型学习NLP数据的组成性。关于文本分类和扫描的广泛实验表明，Treemix优于当前最新数据增强方法。

数据增强是通过转换为机器学习的人工创建数据的人工创建，是一个跨机器学习学科的研究领域。尽管它对于增加模型的概括功能很有用，但它还可以解决许多其他挑战和问题，从克服有限的培训数据到正规化目标到限制用于保护隐私的数据的数量。基于对数据扩展的目标和应用的精确描述以及现有作品的分类法，该调查涉及用于文本分类的数据增强方法，并旨在为研究人员和从业者提供简洁而全面的概述。我们将100多种方法划分为12种不同的分组，并提供最先进的参考文献来阐述哪种方法可以通过将它们相互关联，从而阐述了哪种方法。最后，提供可能构成未来工作的基础的研究观点。

Natural Language Inference (NLI) or Recognizing Textual Entailment (RTE) aims at predicting the relation between a pair of sentences (premise and hypothesis) as entailment, contradiction or semantic independence. Although deep learning models have shown promising performance for NLI in recent years, they rely on large scale expensive human-annotated datasets. Semi-supervised learning (SSL) is a popular technique for reducing the reliance on human annotation by leveraging unlabeled data for training. However, despite its substantial success on single sentence classification tasks where the challenge in making use of unlabeled data is to assign "good enough" pseudo-labels, for NLI tasks, the nature of unlabeled data is more complex: one of the sentences in the pair (usually the hypothesis) along with the class label are missing from the data and require human annotations, which makes SSL for NLI more challenging. In this paper, we propose a novel way to incorporate unlabeled data in SSL for NLI where we use a conditional language model, BART to generate the hypotheses for the unlabeled sentences (used as premises). Our experiments show that our SSL framework successfully exploits unlabeled data and substantially improves the performance of four NLI datasets in low-resource settings. We release our code at: https://github.com/msadat3/SSL_for_NLI.

Transfer learning, where a model is first pre-trained on a data-rich task before being finetuned on a downstream task, has emerged as a powerful technique in natural language processing (NLP). The effectiveness of transfer learning has given rise to a diversity of approaches, methodology, and practice. In this paper, we explore the landscape of transfer learning techniques for NLP by introducing a unified framework that converts all text-based language problems into a text-to-text format. Our systematic study compares pre-training objectives, architectures, unlabeled data sets, transfer approaches, and other factors on dozens of language understanding tasks. By combining the insights from our exploration with scale and our new "Colossal Clean Crawled Corpus", we achieve state-of-the-art results on many benchmarks covering summarization, question answering, text classification, and more. To facilitate future work on transfer learning for NLP, we release our data set, pre-trained models, and code.

本文介绍了一种新的数据增强方法，用于神经机器翻译，该方法可以在语言内部和跨语言内部实施更强的语义一致性。我们的方法基于条件掩盖语言模型（CMLM），该模型是双向的，可以在左右上下文以及标签上有条件。我们证明CMLM是生成上下文依赖性单词分布的好技术。特别是，我们表明CMLM能够通过在替换过程中对源和目标进行调节来实现语义一致性。此外，为了增强多样性，我们将软词替换的想法纳入了数据增强，该概念用词汇上的概率分布代替了一个单词。在不同量表的四个翻译数据集上进行的实验表明，总体解决方案会导致更现实的数据增强和更好的翻译质量。与最新作品相比，我们的方法始终取得了最佳性能，并且在基线上的提高了1.90个BLEU点。

由于低资源域名，新任务以及需要大量培训数据的大规模神经网络的普及，最近，数据增强最近看到了对NLP的兴趣增加。尽管最近的高潮，但由于语言数据的离散性质所带来的挑战，这一领域仍然相对望远欠了。在本文中，我们通过以结构化方式概述文献来展示对NLP的全面和统一对NLP的数据。我们首先介绍和激励NLP的数据增强，然后讨论主要的方法论代表性方法。接下来，我们突出显示用于流行NLP应用程序和任务的技术。我们通过概述当前挑战和未来研究的指示来结束。总体而言，我们的论文旨在澄清现有文学的景观，以便NLP的数据增强，并激励该领域的其他工作。我们还提供了一个GitHub存储库，纸张列表将在https://github.com/styfeng/dataaug4nlp上不断更新

GPT-3等大型语言模型是优秀的几次学习者，允许他们通过自然文本提示来控制。最近的研究报告称，基于及时的直接分类消除了对微调的需求，但缺乏数据和推理可扩展性。本文提出了一种新的数据增强技术，利用大规模语言模型来生成来自真实样本的混合的现实文本样本。我们还建议利用语言模型预测的软标签，从大规模语言模型中有效地蒸馏知识并同时创建文本扰动。我们对各种分类任务进行数据增强实验，并显示我们的方法非常优于现有的文本增强方法。消融研究和定性分析为我们的方法提供了更多的见解。

Grammatical Error Correction (GEC) is the task of automatically detecting and correcting errors in text. The task not only includes the correction of grammatical errors, such as missing prepositions and mismatched subject-verb agreement, but also orthographic and semantic errors, such as misspellings and word choice errors respectively. The field has seen significant progress in the last decade, motivated in part by a series of five shared tasks, which drove the development of rule-based methods, statistical classifiers, statistical machine translation, and finally neural machine translation systems which represent the current dominant state of the art. In this survey paper, we condense the field into a single article and first outline some of the linguistic challenges of the task, introduce the most popular datasets that are available to researchers (for both English and other languages), and summarise the various methods and techniques that have been developed with a particular focus on artificial error generation. We next describe the many different approaches to evaluation as well as concerns surrounding metric reliability, especially in relation to subjective human judgements, before concluding with an overview of recent progress and suggestions for future work and remaining challenges. We hope that this survey will serve as comprehensive resource for researchers who are new to the field or who want to be kept apprised of recent developments.

用于预培训语言模型的自我监督学习的核心包括预训练任务设计以及适当的数据增强。语言模型中的大多数数据增强都是独立于上下文的。最近在电子中提出了一个开创性的增强，并通过引入辅助生成网络（发电机）来实现最先进的性能，以产生用于培训主要辨别网络（鉴别者）的上下文化数据增强。然而，这种设计引入了发电机的额外计算成本，并且需要调整发电机和鉴别器之间的相对能力。在本文中，我们提出了一种自增强策略（SAS），其中单个网络用于审视以后的时期的培训常规预训练和上下文化数据增强。基本上，该策略消除了单独的发电机，并使用单个网络共同执行具有MLM（屏蔽语言建模）和RTD（替换令牌检测）头的两个预训练任务。它避免了寻找适当大小的发电机的挑战，这对于在电子中证明的性能至关重要，以及其随后的变体模型至关重要。此外，SAS是一项常规策略，可以与最近或将来的许多新技术无缝地结合，例如杜伯塔省的解除关注机制。我们的实验表明，SAS能够在具有相似或更少的计算成本中优于胶水任务中的电磁和其他最先进的模型。

神经自回归序列模型涂抹许多可能​​序列之间的概率，包括退化的序列，例如空或重复序列。在这项工作中，我们解决了一个特定的情况，其中模型为不合理的短序列分配高概率。我们定义了量化速率以量化此问题。在确认神经机翻译中高度过度的过天气后，我们建议明确地减少培训期间的过天平率。我们进行一组实验来研究建议的正规化对模型分布和解码性能的影响。我们使用神经电脑翻译任务作为测试用，并考虑三个不同大小的不同数据集。我们的实验显示了三个主要结果。首先，我们可以通过调整正规化的强度来控制模型的过天平率。其次，通过提高过度损失贡献，令牌的概率和等级在不应该是它的位置下降。第三，所提出的正则化影响光束搜索的结果，特别是当使用大梁时。用大梁的翻译质量（在BLEU中测量）的降解显着减少了较低的过天速速率，但与较小光束尺寸相比的劣化仍有剩余状态。从这些观察中，我们得出结论，高度过度的过度性是神经自回归模型中过于可能的短序列的退化情况背后的主要原因。

We introduce a new language representation model called BERT, which stands for Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers. Unlike recent language representation models (Peters et al., 2018a;Radford et al., 2018), BERT is designed to pretrain deep bidirectional representations from unlabeled text by jointly conditioning on both left and right context in all layers. As a result, the pre-trained BERT model can be finetuned with just one additional output layer to create state-of-the-art models for a wide range of tasks, such as question answering and language inference, without substantial taskspecific architecture modifications.BERT is conceptually simple and empirically powerful. It obtains new state-of-the-art results on eleven natural language processing tasks, including pushing the GLUE score to 80.5% (7.7% point absolute improvement), MultiNLI accuracy to 86.7% (4.6% absolute improvement), SQuAD v1.1 question answering Test F1 to 93.2 (1.5 point absolute improvement) and SQuAD v2.0 Test F1 to 83.1 (5.1 point absolute improvement).

作为有效的策略，数据增强（DA）减轻了深度学习技术可能失败的数据稀缺方案。它广泛应用于计算机视觉，然后引入自然语言处理并实现了许多任务的改进。DA方法的主要重点之一是提高培训数据的多样性，从而帮助模型更好地推广到看不见的测试数据。在本调查中，我们根据增强数据的多样性，将DA方法框架为三类，包括释义，注释和采样。我们的论文根据上述类别，详细分析了DA方法。此外，我们还在NLP任务中介绍了他们的应用以及挑战。

数据饥饿的深度神经网络已经将自己作为许多NLP任务的标准建立为包括传统序列标记的标准。尽管他们在高资源语言上表现最先进的表现，但它们仍然落后于低资源场景的统计计数器。一个方法来反击攻击此问题是文本增强，即，从现有数据生成新的合成训练数据点。虽然NLP最近目睹了一种文本增强技术的负载，但该领域仍然缺乏对多种语言和序列标记任务的系统性能分析。为了填补这一差距，我们调查了三类文本增强方法，其在语法（例如，裁剪子句子），令牌（例如，随机字插入）和字符（例如，字符交换）级别上执行更改。我们系统地将它们与语音标记，依赖解析和语义角色标记的分组进行了比较，用于使用各种模型的各种语言系列，包括依赖于诸如MBERT的普赖金的多语言语境化语言模型的架构。增强最显着改善了解析，然后是语音标记和语义角色标记的依赖性解析。我们发现实验技术通常在形态上丰富的语言，而不是越南语等分析语言。我们的研究结果表明，增强技术可以进一步改善基于MBERT的强基线。我们将字符级方法标识为最常见的表演者，而同义词替换和语法增强仪提供不一致的改进。最后，我们讨论了最大依赖于任务，语言对和模型类型的结果。

对比学习被出现为强大的代表学习方法，促进各种下游任务，特别是当监督数据有限时。如何通过数据增强构建有效的对比样本是其成功的关键。与视觉任务不同，语言任务中尚未对对比学习进行对比学习的数据增强方法。在本文中，我们提出了一种使用文本摘要构建语言任务的对比样本的新方法。我们使用这些样本进行监督的对比学习，以获得更好的文本表示，这极大地利用了具有有限注释的文本分类任务。为了进一步改进该方法，除了交叉熵损失之外，我们将从不同类中的样本混合并添加一个名为MIXSUM的额外正则化。真实世界文本分类数据集（Amazon-5，Yelp-5，AG新闻和IMDB）的实验展示了基于摘要的数据增强和MIXSUM正规化的提议对比学习框架的有效性。

Word Sense Disambiguation (WSD) is an NLP task aimed at determining the correct sense of a word in a sentence from discrete sense choices. Although current systems have attained unprecedented performances for such tasks, the nonuniform distribution of word senses during training generally results in systems performing poorly on rare senses. To this end, we consider data augmentation to increase the frequency of these least frequent senses (LFS) to reduce the distributional bias of senses during training. We propose Sense-Maintained Sentence Mixup (SMSMix), a novel word-level mixup method that maintains the sense of a target word. SMSMix smoothly blends two sentences using mask prediction while preserving the relevant span determined by saliency scores to maintain a specific word's sense. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first attempt to apply mixup in NLP while preserving the meaning of a specific word. With extensive experiments, we validate that our augmentation method can effectively give more information about rare senses during training with maintained target sense label.

We present BART, a denoising autoencoder for pretraining sequence-to-sequence models. BART is trained by ( 1) corrupting text with an arbitrary noising function, and (2) learning a model to reconstruct the original text. It uses a standard Tranformer-based neural machine translation architecture which, despite its simplicity, can be seen as generalizing BERT (due to the bidirectional encoder), GPT (with the left-to-right decoder), and many other more recent pretraining schemes. We evaluate a number of noising approaches, finding the best performance by both randomly shuffling the order of the original sentences and using a novel in-filling scheme, where spans of text are replaced with a single mask token. BART is particularly effective when fine tuned for text generation but also works well for comprehension tasks. It matches the performance of RoBERTa with comparable training resources on GLUE and SQuAD, achieves new stateof-the-art results on a range of abstractive dialogue, question answering, and summarization tasks, with gains of up to 6 ROUGE. BART also provides a 1.1 BLEU increase over a back-translation system for machine translation, with only target language pretraining. We also report ablation experiments that replicate other pretraining schemes within the BART framework, to better measure which factors most influence end-task performance.

近年来，文本的风格特性吸引了计算语言学研究人员。具体来说，研究人员研究了文本样式转移（TST）任务，该任务旨在在保留其样式独立内容的同时改变文本的风格属性。在过去的几年中，已经开发了许多新颖的TST算法，而该行业利用这些算法来实现令人兴奋的TST应用程序。由于这种共生，TST研究领域迅速发展。本文旨在对有关文本样式转移的最新研究工作进行全面审查。更具体地说，我们创建了一种分类法来组织TST模型，并提供有关最新技术状况的全面摘要。我们回顾了针对TST任务的现有评估方法，并进行了大规模的可重复性研究，我们在两个公开可用的数据集上实验基准了19个最先进的TST TST算法。最后，我们扩展了当前趋势，并就TST领域的新开发发展提供了新的观点。

Semi-supervised learning lately has shown much promise in improving deep learning models when labeled data is scarce. Common among recent approaches is the use of consistency training on a large amount of unlabeled data to constrain model predictions to be invariant to input noise. In this work, we present a new perspective on how to effectively noise unlabeled examples and argue that the quality of noising, specifically those produced by advanced data augmentation methods, plays a crucial role in semi-supervised learning. By substituting simple noising operations with advanced data augmentation methods such as RandAugment and back-translation, our method brings substantial improvements across six language and three vision tasks under the same consistency training framework. On the IMDb text classification dataset, with only 20 labeled examples, our method achieves an error rate of 4.20, outperforming the state-of-the-art model trained on 25,000 labeled examples. On a standard semi-supervised learning benchmark, CIFAR-10, our method outperforms all previous approaches and achieves an error rate of 5.43 with only 250 examples. Our method also combines well with transfer learning, e.g., when finetuning from BERT, and yields improvements in high-data regime, such as ImageNet, whether when there is only 10% labeled data or when a full labeled set with 1.3M extra unlabeled examples is used. 1