Multi-uncertainties from power sources and loads have brought significant challenges to the stable demand supply of various resources at islands. To address these challenges, a comprehensive scheduling framework is proposed by introducing a model-free deep reinforcement learning (DRL) approach based on modeling an island integrated energy system (IES). In response to the shortage of freshwater on islands, in addition to the introduction of seawater desalination systems, a transmission structure of "hydrothermal simultaneous transmission" (HST) is proposed. The essence of the IES scheduling problem is the optimal combination of each unit's output, which is a typical timing control problem and conforms to the Markov decision-making solution framework of deep reinforcement learning. Deep reinforcement learning adapts to various changes and timely adjusts strategies through the interaction of agents and the environment, avoiding complicated modeling and prediction of multi-uncertainties. The simulation results show that the proposed scheduling framework properly handles multi-uncertainties from power sources and loads, achieves a stable demand supply for various resources, and has better performance than other real-time scheduling methods, especially in terms of computational efficiency. In addition, the HST model constitutes an active exploration to improve the utilization efficiency of island freshwater.

As an efficient way to integrate multiple distributed energy resources and the user side, a microgrid is mainly faced with the problems of small-scale volatility, uncertainty, intermittency and demand-side uncertainty of DERs. The traditional microgrid has a single form and cannot meet the flexible energy dispatch between the complex demand side and the microgrid. In response to this problem, the overall environment of wind power, thermostatically controlled loads, energy storage systems, price-responsive loads and the main grid is proposed. Secondly, the centralized control of the microgrid operation is convenient for the control of the reactive power and voltage of the distributed power supply and the adjustment of the grid frequency. However, there is a problem in that the flexible loads aggregate and generate peaks during the electricity price valley. The existing research takes into account the power constraints of the microgrid and fails to ensure a sufficient supply of electric energy for a single flexible load. This paper considers the response priority of each unit component of TCLs and ESSs on the basis of the overall environment operation of the microgrid so as to ensure the power supply of the flexible load of the microgrid and save the power input cost to the greatest extent. Finally, the simulation optimization of the environment can be expressed as a Markov decision process process. It combines two stages of offline and online operations in the training process. The addition of multiple threads with the lack of historical data learning leads to low learning efficiency. The asynchronous advantage actor-critic with the experience replay pool memory library is added to solve the data correlation and nonstatic distribution problems during training.

智能能源网络提供了一种有效的手段，可容纳可变可再生能源（例如太阳能和风能）的高渗透率，这是能源生产深度脱碳的关键。但是，鉴于可再生能源以及能源需求的可变性，必须制定有效的控制和能源存储方案来管理可变的能源产生并实现所需的系统经济学和环境目标。在本文中，我们引入了由电池和氢能存储组成的混合储能系统，以处理与电价，可再生能源生产和消费有关的不确定性。我们旨在提高可再生能源利用率，并最大程度地减少能源成本和碳排放，同时确保网络内的能源可靠性和稳定性。为了实现这一目标，我们提出了一种多代理的深层确定性政策梯度方法，这是一种基于强化的基于强化学习的控制策略，可实时优化混合能源存储系统和能源需求的调度。提出的方法是无模型的，不需要明确的知识和智能能源网络环境的严格数学模型。基于现实世界数据的仿真结果表明：（i）混合储能系统和能源需求的集成和优化操作可将碳排放量减少78.69％，将成本节省的成本储蓄提高23.5％，可续订的能源利用率比13.2％以上。其他基线模型和（ii）所提出的算法优于最先进的自学习算法，例如Deep-Q网络。

利用其数据驱动和无模型的功能，深入加强学习（DRL）算法有可能应对由于引入基于可再生能源的一代而导致的不确定性升高。要同时处理能源系统的运营成本和技术约束（例如，生成需求平衡），DRL算法在设计奖励功能时必须考虑权衡取舍。这种权衡引入了额外的超参数，这些超参数会影响DRL算法的性能和提供可行解决方案的能力。在本文中，介绍了包括DDPG，TD3，SAC和PPO在内的不同DRL算法的性能比较。我们旨在为能源系统最佳调度问题提供这些DRL算法的公平比较。结果表明，与能源系统最佳调度问题的数学编程模型相比，即使在看不见的操作场景中，DRL算法在实时良好质量解决方案中提供的能力也是如此。然而，在大量高峰消费的情况下，这些算法未能提供可行的解决方案，这可能会阻碍其实际实施。

The high emission and low energy efficiency caused by internal combustion engines (ICE) have become unacceptable under environmental regulations and the energy crisis. As a promising alternative solution, multi-power source electric vehicles (MPS-EVs) introduce different clean energy systems to improve powertrain efficiency. The energy management strategy (EMS) is a critical technology for MPS-EVs to maximize efficiency, fuel economy, and range. Reinforcement learning (RL) has become an effective methodology for the development of EMS. RL has received continuous attention and research, but there is still a lack of systematic analysis of the design elements of RL-based EMS. To this end, this paper presents an in-depth analysis of the current research on RL-based EMS (RL-EMS) and summarizes the design elements of RL-based EMS. This paper first summarizes the previous applications of RL in EMS from five aspects: algorithm, perception scheme, decision scheme, reward function, and innovative training method. The contribution of advanced algorithms to the training effect is shown, the perception and control schemes in the literature are analyzed in detail, different reward function settings are classified, and innovative training methods with their roles are elaborated. Finally, by comparing the development routes of RL and RL-EMS, this paper identifies the gap between advanced RL solutions and existing RL-EMS. Finally, this paper suggests potential development directions for implementing advanced artificial intelligence (AI) solutions in EMS.

为了通过使用可再生能源来取代化石燃料，间歇性风能和光伏（PV）功率的资源不平衡是点对点（P2P）功率交易的关键问题。为了解决这个问题，本文介绍了增强学习（RL）技术。对于RL，图形卷积网络（GCN）和双向长期记忆（BI-LSTM）网络由基于合作游戏理论的纳米簇之间的P2P功率交易共同应用于P2P功率交易。柔性且可靠的DC纳米醇适合整合可再生能源以进行分配系统。每个局部纳米粒子群都采用了生产者的位置，同时着重于功率生产和消费。对于纳米级簇的电源管理，使用物联网（IoT）技术将多目标优化应用于每个本地纳米群集群。考虑到风和光伏发电的间歇性特征，进行电动汽车（EV）的充电/排放。 RL算法，例如深Q学习网络（DQN），深度复发Q学习网络（DRQN），BI-DRQN，近端策略优化（PPO），GCN-DQN，GCN-DQN，GCN-DRQN，GCN-DRQN，GCN-BI-DRQN和GCN-PPO用于模拟。因此，合作P2P电力交易系统利用使用时间（TOU）基于关税的电力成本和系统边际价格（SMP）最大化利润，并最大程度地减少电网功耗的量。用P2P电源交易的纳米簇簇的电源管理实时模拟了分配测试馈线，并提议的GCN-PPO技术将纳米糖簇的电量降低了36.7％。

This paper presents a multi-agent Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) framework for autonomous control and integration of renewable energy resources into smart power grid systems. In particular, the proposed framework jointly considers demand response (DR) and distributed energy management (DEM) for residential end-users. DR has a widely recognized potential for improving power grid stability and reliability, while at the same time reducing end-users energy bills. However, the conventional DR techniques come with several shortcomings, such as the inability to handle operational uncertainties while incurring end-user disutility, which prevents widespread adoption in real-world applications. The proposed framework addresses these shortcomings by implementing DR and DEM based on real-time pricing strategy that is achieved using deep reinforcement learning. Furthermore, this framework enables the power grid service provider to leverage distributed energy resources (i.e., PV rooftop panels and battery storage) as dispatchable assets to support the smart grid during peak hours, thus achieving management of distributed energy resources. Simulation results based on the Deep Q-Network (DQN) demonstrate significant improvements of the 24-hour accumulative profit for both prosumers and the power grid service provider, as well as major reductions in the utilization of the power grid reserve generators.

Energy management systems (EMS) are becoming increasingly important in order to utilize the continuously growing curtailed renewable energy. Promising energy storage systems (ESS), such as batteries and green hydrogen should be employed to maximize the efficiency of energy stakeholders. However, optimal decision-making, i.e., planning the leveraging between different strategies, is confronted with the complexity and uncertainties of large-scale problems. Here, we propose a sophisticated deep reinforcement learning (DRL) methodology with a policy-based algorithm to realize the real-time optimal ESS planning under the curtailed renewable energy uncertainty. A quantitative performance comparison proved that the DRL agent outperforms the scenario-based stochastic optimization (SO) algorithm, even with a wide action and observation space. Owing to the uncertainty rejection capability of the DRL, we could confirm a robust performance, under a large uncertainty of the curtailed renewable energy, with a maximizing net profit and stable system. Action-mapping was performed for visually assessing the action taken by the DRL agent according to the state. The corresponding results confirmed that the DRL agent learns the way like what a human expert would do, suggesting reliable application of the proposed methodology.

本文解决了当参与需求响应（DR）时优化电动汽车（EV）的充电/排放时间表的问题。由于电动汽车的剩余能量，到达和出发时间以及未来的电价中存在不确定性，因此很难做出充电决定以最大程度地减少充电成本，同时保证电动汽车的电池最先进（SOC）在内某些范围。为了解决这一难题，本文将EV充电调度问题制定为Markov决策过程（CMDP）。通过协同结合增强的Lagrangian方法和软演员评论家算法，本文提出了一种新型安全的非政策钢筋学习方法（RL）方法来解决CMDP。通过Lagrangian值函数以策略梯度方式更新Actor网络。采用双重危机网络来同步估计动作值函数，以避免高估偏差。所提出的算法不需要强烈的凸度保证，可以保证被检查的问题，并且是有效的样本。现实世界中电价的全面数值实验表明，我们提出的算法可以实现高解决方案最佳性和约束依从性。

如今，微电网（MG）具有可再生能源的应用越来越广泛，这对动态能量管理产生了强烈的需求。在本文中，深入强化学习（DRL）用于学习最佳政策，以在孤立的毫克中制定联合能源调度（ED）和单位承诺（UC）决策，目的是降低前提的总发电成本确保供求余额。为了克服因联合ED和UC引起的离散连续混合动作空间的挑战，我们提出了DRL算法，即混合动作有限的Horizo​​n DDPG（HAFH-DDPG），该算法无缝地集成了两个经典的DRL算法，即。 ，基于有限的horizo​​n动态编程（DP）框架，深Q网络（DQN）和深层确定性策略梯度（DDPG）。此外，提出了柴油发电机（DG）选择策略，以支持简化的动作空间，以降低该算法的计算复杂性。最后，通过与现实世界数据集的实验相比，通过与多种基线算法进行比较来验证我们所提出的算法的有效性。

Heating in private households is a major contributor to the emissions generated today. Heat pumps are a promising alternative for heat generation and are a key technology in achieving our goals of the German energy transformation and to become less dependent on fossil fuels. Today, the majority of heat pumps in the field are controlled by a simple heating curve, which is a naive mapping of the current outdoor temperature to a control action. A more advanced control approach is model predictive control (MPC) which was applied in multiple research works to heat pump control. However, MPC is heavily dependent on the building model, which has several disadvantages. Motivated by this and by recent breakthroughs in the field, this work applies deep reinforcement learning (DRL) to heat pump control in a simulated environment. Through a comparison to MPC, it could be shown that it is possible to apply DRL in a model-free manner to achieve MPC-like performance. This work extends other works which have already applied DRL to building heating operation by performing an in-depth analysis of the learned control strategies and by giving a detailed comparison of the two state-of-the-art control methods.

The utilization of large-scale distributed renewable energy promotes the development of the multi-microgrid (MMG), which raises the need of developing an effective energy management method to minimize economic costs and keep self energy-sufficiency. The multi-agent deep reinforcement learning (MADRL) has been widely used for the energy management problem because of its real-time scheduling ability. However, its training requires massive energy operation data of microgrids (MGs), while gathering these data from different MGs would threaten their privacy and data security. Therefore, this paper tackles this practical yet challenging issue by proposing a federated multi-agent deep reinforcement learning (F-MADRL) algorithm via the physics-informed reward. In this algorithm, the federated learning (FL) mechanism is introduced to train the F-MADRL algorithm thus ensures the privacy and the security of data. In addition, a decentralized MMG model is built, and the energy of each participated MG is managed by an agent, which aims to minimize economic costs and keep self energy-sufficiency according to the physics-informed reward. At first, MGs individually execute the self-training based on local energy operation data to train their local agent models. Then, these local models are periodically uploaded to a server and their parameters are aggregated to build a global agent, which will be broadcasted to MGs and replace their local agents. In this way, the experience of each MG agent can be shared and the energy operation data is not explicitly transmitted, thus protecting the privacy and ensuring data security. Finally, experiments are conducted on Oak Ridge national laboratory distributed energy control communication lab microgrid (ORNL-MG) test system, and the comparisons are carried out to verify the effectiveness of introducing the FL mechanism and the outperformance of our proposed F-MADRL.

Global power systems are increasingly reliant on wind energy as a mitigation strategy for climate change. However, the variability of wind energy causes system reliability to erode, resulting in the wind being curtailed and, ultimately, leading to substantial economic losses for wind farm owners. Wind curtailment can be reduced using battery energy storage systems (BESS) that serve as onsite backup sources. Yet, this auxiliary role may significantly hamper the BESS's capacity to generate revenues from the electricity market, particularly in conducting energy arbitrage in the Spot market and providing frequency control ancillary services (FCAS) in the FCAS markets. Ideal BESS scheduling should effectively balance the BESS's role in absorbing onsite wind curtailment and trading in the electricity market, but it is difficult in practice because of the underlying coordination complexity and the stochastic nature of energy prices and wind generation. In this study, we investigate the bidding strategy of a wind-battery system co-located and participating simultaneously in both the Spot and Regulation FCAS markets. We propose a deep reinforcement learning (DRL)-based approach that decouples the market participation of the wind-battery system into two related Markov decision processes for each facility, enabling the BESS to absorb onsite wind curtailment while simultaneously bidding in the wholesale Spot and FCAS markets to maximize overall operational revenues. Using realistic wind farm data, we validated the coordinated bidding strategy for the wind-battery system and find that our strategy generates significantly higher revenue and responds better to wind curtailment compared to an optimization-based benchmark. Our results show that joint-market bidding can significantly improve the financial performance of wind-battery systems compared to individual market participation.

我们考虑了需求侧能源管理的问题，每个家庭都配备了能够在线安排家用电器的智能电表。目的是最大程度地减少实时定价计划下的整体成本。尽管以前的作品引入了集中式方法，在该方法中，调度算法具有完全可观察的性能，但我们提出了将智能网格环境作为马尔可夫游戏的表述。每个家庭都是具有部分可观察性的去中心化代理，可以在现实环境中进行可扩展性和隐私保护。电网操作员产生的价格信号随能量需求而变化。我们提出了从代理商的角度来解决部分可观察性和环境的局部可观察性的扩展，以解决部分可观察性。该算法学习了一位集中批评者，该批评者协调分散的代理商的培训。因此，我们的方法使用集中学习，但分散执行。仿真结果表明，我们的在线深入强化学习方法可以纯粹基于瞬时观察和价格信号来降低所有消耗的总能量的峰值与平均值和所有家庭的电力。

Ongoing risks from climate change have impacted the livelihood of global nomadic communities, and are likely to lead to increased migratory movements in coming years. As a result, mobility considerations are becoming increasingly important in energy systems planning, particularly to achieve energy access in developing countries. Advanced Plug and Play control strategies have been recently developed with such a decentralized framework in mind, more easily allowing for the interconnection of nomadic communities, both to each other and to the main grid. In light of the above, the design and planning strategy of a mobile multi-energy supply system for a nomadic community is investigated in this work. Motivated by the scale and dimensionality of the associated uncertainties, impacting all major design and decision variables over the 30-year planning horizon, Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) is implemented for the design and planning problem tackled. DRL based solutions are benchmarked against several rigid baseline design options to compare expected performance under uncertainty. The results on a case study for ger communities in Mongolia suggest that mobile nomadic energy systems can be both technically and economically feasible, particularly when considering flexibility, although the degree of spatial dispersion among households is an important limiting factor. Key economic, sustainability and resilience indicators such as Cost, Equivalent Emissions and Total Unmet Load are measured, suggesting potential improvements compared to available baselines of up to 25%, 67% and 76%, respectively. Finally, the decomposition of values of flexibility and plug and play operation is presented using a variation of real options theory, with important implications for both nomadic communities and policymakers focused on enabling their energy access.

Driven by the global decarbonization effort, the rapid integration of renewable energy into the conventional electricity grid presents new challenges and opportunities for the battery energy storage system (BESS) participating in the energy market. Energy arbitrage can be a significant source of revenue for the BESS due to the increasing price volatility in the spot market caused by the mismatch between renewable generation and electricity demand. In addition, the Frequency Control Ancillary Services (FCAS) markets established to stabilize the grid can offer higher returns for the BESS due to their capability to respond within milliseconds. Therefore, it is crucial for the BESS to carefully decide how much capacity to assign to each market to maximize the total profit under uncertain market conditions. This paper formulates the bidding problem of the BESS as a Markov Decision Process, which enables the BESS to participate in both the spot market and the FCAS market to maximize profit. Then, Proximal Policy Optimization, a model-free deep reinforcement learning algorithm, is employed to learn the optimal bidding strategy from the dynamic environment of the energy market under a continuous bidding scale. The proposed model is trained and validated using real-world historical data of the Australian National Electricity Market. The results demonstrate that our developed joint bidding strategy in both markets is significantly profitable compared to individual markets.

增强学习（RL）是多能管理系统的有前途的最佳控制技术。它不需要先验模型 - 降低了前期和正在进行的项目特定工程工作，并且能够学习基础系统动力学的更好表示。但是，香草RL不能提供约束满意度的保证 - 导致其在安全至关重要的环境中产生各种不安全的互动。在本文中，我们介绍了两种新颖的安全RL方法，即SafeFallback和Afvafe，其中安全约束配方与RL配方脱钩，并且提供了硬构成满意度，可以保证在培训（探索）和开发过程中（近距离） ）最佳政策。在模拟的多能系统案例研究中，我们已经表明，这两种方法均与香草RL基准相比（94,6％和82,8％，而35.5％）和香草RL基准相比明显更高的效用（即有用的政策）开始。提出的SafeFallback方法甚至可以胜过香草RL基准（102,9％至100％）。我们得出的结论是，这两种方法都是超越RL的安全限制处理技术，正如随机代理所证明的，同时仍提供坚硬的保证。最后，我们向I.A.提出了基本的未来工作。随着更多数据可用，改善约束功能本身。

The exponential growth in demand for digital services drives massive datacenter energy consumption and negative environmental impacts. Promoting sustainable solutions to pressing energy and digital infrastructure challenges is crucial. Several hyperscale cloud providers have announced plans to power their datacenters using renewable energy. However, integrating renewables to power the datacenters is challenging because the power generation is intermittent, necessitating approaches to tackle power supply variability. Hand engineering domain-specific heuristics-based schedulers to meet specific objective functions in such complex dynamic green datacenter environments is time-consuming, expensive, and requires extensive tuning by domain experts. The green datacenters need smart systems and system software to employ multiple renewable energy sources (wind and solar) by intelligently adapting computing to renewable energy generation. We present RARE (Renewable energy Aware REsource management), a Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) job scheduler that automatically learns effective job scheduling policies while continually adapting to datacenters' complex dynamic environment. The resulting DRL scheduler performs better than heuristic scheduling policies with different workloads and adapts to the intermittent power supply from renewables. We demonstrate DRL scheduler system design parameters that, when tuned correctly, produce better performance. Finally, we demonstrate that the DRL scheduler can learn from and improve upon existing heuristic policies using Offline Learning.

This paper studies a model for online job scheduling in green datacenters. In green datacenters, resource availability depends on the power supply from the renewables. Intermittent power supply from renewables leads to intermittent resource availability, inducing job delays (and associated costs). Green datacenter operators must intelligently manage their workloads and available power supply to extract maximum benefits. The scheduler's objective is to schedule jobs on a set of resources to maximize the total value (revenue) while minimizing the overall job delay. A trade-off exists between achieving high job value on the one hand and low expected delays on the other. Hence, the aims of achieving high rewards and low costs are in opposition. In addition, datacenter operators often prioritize multiple objectives, including high system utilization and job completion. To accomplish the opposing goals of maximizing total job value and minimizing job delays, we apply the Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Lagrangian methods in Deep Reinforcement Learning to job scheduling problem in the green datacenter environment. Lagrangian methods are widely used algorithms for constrained optimization problems. We adopt a controls perspective to learn the Lagrange multiplier with proportional, integral, and derivative control, achieving favorable learning dynamics. Feedback control defines cost terms for the learning agent, monitors the cost limits during training, and continuously adjusts the learning parameters to achieve stable performance. Our experiments demonstrate improved performance compared to scheduling policies without the PID Lagrangian methods. Experimental results illustrate the effectiveness of the Constraint Controlled Reinforcement Learning (CoCoRL) scheduler that simultaneously satisfies multiple objectives.

Reinforcement learning-based (RL-based) energy management strategy (EMS) is considered a promising solution for the energy management of electric vehicles with multiple power sources. It has been shown to outperform conventional methods in energy management problems regarding energy-saving and real-time performance. However, previous studies have not systematically examined the essential elements of RL-based EMS. This paper presents an empirical analysis of RL-based EMS in a Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV). The empirical analysis is developed in four aspects: algorithm, perception and decision granularity, hyperparameters, and reward function. The results show that the Off-policy algorithm effectively develops a more fuel-efficient solution within the complete driving cycle compared with other algorithms. Improving the perception and decision granularity does not produce a more desirable energy-saving solution but better balances battery power and fuel consumption. The equivalent energy optimization objective based on the instantaneous state of charge (SOC) variation is parameter sensitive and can help RL-EMSs to achieve more efficient energy-cost strategies.