a) Stereo input: trajectory and sparse reconstruction of an urban environment with multiple loop closures. (b) RGB-D input: keyframes and dense pointcloud of a room scene with one loop closure. The pointcloud is rendered by backprojecting the sensor depth maps from estimated keyframe poses. No fusion is performed.

This paper presents ORB-SLAM, a feature-based monocular SLAM system that operates in real time, in small and large, indoor and outdoor environments. The system is robust to severe motion clutter, allows wide baseline loop closing and relocalization, and includes full automatic initialization. Building on excellent algorithms of recent years, we designed from scratch a novel system that uses the same features for all SLAM tasks: tracking, mapping, relocalization, and loop closing. A survival of the fittest strategy that selects the points and keyframes of the reconstruction leads to excellent robustness and generates a compact and trackable map that only grows if the scene content changes, allowing lifelong operation. We present an exhaustive evaluation in 27 sequences from the most popular datasets. ORB-SLAM achieves unprecedented performance with respect to other state-of-the-art monocular SLAM approaches. For the benefit of the community, we make the source code public.

This paper presents ORB-SLAM3, the first system able to perform visual, visual-inertial and multi-map SLAM with monocular, stereo and RGB-D cameras, using pin-hole and fisheye lens models.The first main novelty is a feature-based tightly-integrated visual-inertial SLAM system that fully relies on Maximum-a-Posteriori (MAP) estimation, even during the IMU initialization phase. The result is a system that operates robustly in real time, in small and large, indoor and outdoor environments, and is two to ten times more accurate than previous approaches.The second main novelty is a multiple map system that relies on a new place recognition method with improved recall. Thanks to it, ORB-SLAM3 is able to survive to long periods of poor visual information: when it gets lost, it starts a new map that will be seamlessly merged with previous maps when revisiting mapped areas. Compared with visual odometry systems that only use information from the last few seconds, ORB-SLAM3 is the first system able to reuse in all the algorithm stages all previous information. This allows to include in bundle adjustment co-visible keyframes, that provide high parallax observations boosting accuracy, even if they are widely separated in time or if they come from a previous mapping session.Our experiments show that, in all sensor configurations, ORB-SLAM3 is as robust as the best systems available in the literature, and significantly more accurate. Notably, our stereo-inertial SLAM achieves an average accuracy of 3.5 cm in the EuRoC drone and 9 mm under quick hand-held motions in the room of TUM-VI dataset, a setting representative of AR/VR scenarios. For the benefit of the community we make public the source code.

本文介绍了一种用于水下车辆机械手系统（UVMS）的新型视野映射方法，具有特定强调自然海底环境中的鲁棒映射。水下场景映射的先前方法通常会离线处理数据，而实时运行的现有水下SLAM方法通常会集中在本地化上而不是映射。我们的方法使用GPU加速SIFT功能在图形优化框架中构建一个特征映射。地图刻度由车辆安装的立体声相机的特征约束，我们通过将机械手系统的动态定位能力从手腕安装的Fisheye摄像机融合到地图中，以将其延伸到车辆安装摄像机的有限视点之外。我们的混合SLAM方法是在Costa rican Continental Shelf级别的自然深海环境中采用UVMS收集的挑战性图像序列，我们还在浅礁调查数据集中评估立体声的立体声。这些数据集的结果证明了我们的系统的高准确性，适合于在不同的自然海底环境中运营。

在本文中，我们开发了一个健壮，有效的视觉大满贯系统，该系统利用了低阈值，基线线和闭环钥匙帧功能的空间抑制。使用ORB-SLAM2，我们的方法包括立体声匹配，框架跟踪，本地捆绑包调整以及线路和点全局捆绑捆绑调整。特别是，我们根据基线贡献了重新注射。融合系统中的线路会消耗巨大的时间，我们减少了从分布点到利用特征点的空间抑制的时间。此外，低阈值关键点在处理低纹理方面可能更有效。为了克服跟踪钥匙帧的冗余问题，提出了有效且可靠的闭环跟踪钥匙框架。所提出的SLAM在Kitti和Euroc数据集中进行了广泛的测试，表明所提出的系统在各种情况下都优于最新方法。

尽管密集的视觉大满贯方法能够估计环境的密集重建，但它们的跟踪步骤缺乏稳健性，尤其是当优化初始化较差时。稀疏的视觉大满贯系统通过将惯性测量包括在紧密耦合的融合中，达到了高度的准确性和鲁棒性。受这一表演的启发，我们提出了第一个紧密耦合的密集RGB-D惯性大满贯系统。我们的系统在GPU上运行时具有实时功能。它共同优化了相机姿势，速度，IMU偏见和重力方向，同时建立了全球一致，完全密集的基于表面的3D重建环境。通过一系列关于合成和现实世界数据集的实验，我们表明我们密集的视觉惯性大满贯系统对于低纹理和低几何变化的快速运动和时期比仅相关的RGB-D仅相关的SLAM系统更强大。

我们提出了一种新颖的方法，可用于快速准确的立体声视觉同时定位和映射（SLAM），独立于特征检测和匹配。通过优化3D点的规模，将单眼直接稀疏的内径术（DSO）扩展到立体声系统，以最小化立体声配置的光度误差，从而与传统立体声匹配相比产生计算有效和鲁棒的方法。我们进一步将其扩展到具有环路闭合的完整SLAM系统，以减少累积的错误。在假设前向相机运动中，我们使用从视觉径管中获得的3D点模拟LIDAR扫描，并适应LIDAR描述符以便放置识别以便于更有效地检测回路封闭件。之后，我们通过最小化潜在环封闭件的光度误差来估计使用直接对准的相对姿势。可选地，通过使用迭代最近的点（ICP）算法来实现通过直接对准的进一步改进。最后，我们优化一个姿势图，以提高全球的猛烈精度。通过避免在我们的SLAM系统中的特征检测或匹配，我们确保高计算效率和鲁棒性。与最先进的方法相比，公共数据集上的彻底实验验证展示了其有效性。

由于其对环境变化的鲁棒性，视觉猛感的间接方法是受欢迎的。 ORB-SLAM2 \ CITE {ORBSLM2}是该域中的基准方法，但是，除非选择帧作为关键帧，否则它会消耗从未被重用的描述符。轻量级和高效，因为它跟踪相邻帧之间的关键点而不计算描述符。为此，基于稀疏光流提出了一种两个级粗到微小描述符独立的Keypoint匹配方法。在第一阶段，我们通过简单但有效的运动模型预测初始关键点对应，然后通过基于金字塔的稀疏光流跟踪鲁棒地建立了对应关系。在第二阶段，我们利用运动平滑度和末端几何形状的约束来改进对应关系。特别是，我们的方法仅计算关键帧的描述符。我们在\ texit {tum}和\ texit {icl-nuim} RGB-D数据集上测试Fastorb-Slam，并将其准确性和效率与九种现有的RGB-D SLAM方法进行比较。定性和定量结果表明，我们的方法实现了最先进的准确性，并且大约是ORB-SLAM2的两倍。

We propose a direct (feature-less) monocular SLAM algorithm which, in contrast to current state-of-the-art regarding direct methods, allows to build large-scale, consistent maps of the environment. Along with highly accurate pose estimation based on direct image alignment, the 3D environment is reconstructed in real-time as pose-graph of keyframes with associated semi-dense depth maps. These are obtained by filtering over a large number of pixelwise small-baseline stereo comparisons. The explicitly scale-drift aware formulation allows the approach to operate on challenging sequences including large variations in scene scale. Major enablers are two key novelties: (1) a novel direct tracking method which operates on sim(3), thereby explicitly detecting scale-drift, and (2) an elegant probabilistic solution to include the effect of noisy depth values into tracking. The resulting direct monocular SLAM system runs in real-time on a CPU.

农业行业不断寻求农业生产中涉及的不同过程的自动化，例如播种，收获和杂草控制。使用移动自主机器人执行这些任务引起了极大的兴趣。耕地面向同时定位和映射（SLAM）系统（移动机器人技术的关键）面临着艰巨的挑战，这是由于视觉上的难度，这是由于高度重复的场景而引起的。近年来，已经开发了几种视觉惯性遗传（VIO）和SLAM系统。事实证明，它们在室内和室外城市环境中具有很高的准确性。但是，在农业领域未正确评估它们。在这项工作中，我们从可耕地上的准确性和处理时间方面评估了最相关的最新VIO系统，以便更好地了解它们在这些环境中的行为。特别是，该评估是在我们的车轮机器人记录的大豆领域记录的传感器数据集中进行的，该田间被公开发行为Rosario数据集。评估表明，环境的高度重复性外观，崎terrain的地形产生的强振动以及由风引起的叶子的运动，暴露了当前最新的VIO和SLAM系统的局限性。我们分析了系统故障并突出观察到的缺点，包括初始化故障，跟踪损失和对IMU饱和的敏感性。最后，我们得出的结论是，即使某些系统（例如Orb-Slam3和S-MSCKF）在其他系统方面表现出良好的结果，但应采取更多改进，以使其在某些申请中的农业领域可靠，例如作物行的土壤耕作和农药喷涂。 。

结合同时定位和映射（SLAM）估计和动态场景建模可以高效地在动态环境中获得机器人自主权。机器人路径规划和障碍避免任务依赖于场景中动态对象运动的准确估计。本文介绍了VDO-SLAM，这是一种强大的视觉动态对象感知SLAM系统，用于利用语义信息，使得能够在场景中进行准确的运动估计和跟踪动态刚性物体，而无需任何先前的物体形状或几何模型的知识。所提出的方法识别和跟踪环境中的动态对象和静态结构，并将这些信息集成到统一的SLAM框架中。这导致机器人轨迹的高度准确估计和对象的全部SE（3）运动以及环境的时空地图。该系统能够从对象的SE（3）运动中提取线性速度估计，为复杂的动态环境中的导航提供重要功能。我们展示了所提出的系统对许多真实室内和室外数据集的性能，结果表明了对最先进的算法的一致和实质性的改进。可以使用源代码的开源版本。

In this paper, we present a novel visual SLAM and long-term localization benchmark for autonomous driving in challenging conditions based on the large-scale 4Seasons dataset. The proposed benchmark provides drastic appearance variations caused by seasonal changes and diverse weather and illumination conditions. While significant progress has been made in advancing visual SLAM on small-scale datasets with similar conditions, there is still a lack of unified benchmarks representative of real-world scenarios for autonomous driving. We introduce a new unified benchmark for jointly evaluating visual odometry, global place recognition, and map-based visual localization performance which is crucial to successfully enable autonomous driving in any condition. The data has been collected for more than one year, resulting in more than 300 km of recordings in nine different environments ranging from a multi-level parking garage to urban (including tunnels) to countryside and highway. We provide globally consistent reference poses with up to centimeter-level accuracy obtained from the fusion of direct stereo-inertial odometry with RTK GNSS. We evaluate the performance of several state-of-the-art visual odometry and visual localization baseline approaches on the benchmark and analyze their properties. The experimental results provide new insights into current approaches and show promising potential for future research. Our benchmark and evaluation protocols will be available at https://www.4seasons-dataset.com/.

当将同时映射和本地化（SLAM）调整到现实世界中的应用程序（例如自动驾驶汽车，无人机和增强现实设备）时，其内存足迹和计算成本是限制性能和应用程序范围的两个主要因素。在基于稀疏特征的SLAM算法中，解决此问题的一种有效方法是通过选择可能对本地和全局捆绑捆绑调整（BA）有用的点来限制地图点大小。这项研究提出了用于大量系统中稀疏地图点的有效图优化。具体而言，我们将最大姿势可见度和最大空间多样性问题作为最小成本最大流量图优化问题。提出的方法是现有SLAM系统的附加步骤，因此可以在常规或基于学习的SLAM系统中使用。通过广泛的实验评估，我们证明了所提出的方法以大约1/3的MAP点和1/2的计算实现了更准确的相机姿势。

Various datasets have been proposed for simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) and related problems. Existing datasets often include small environments, have incomplete ground truth, or lack important sensor data, such as depth and infrared images. We propose an easy-to-use framework for acquiring building-scale 3D reconstruction using a consumer depth camera. Unlike complex and expensive acquisition setups, our system enables crowd-sourcing, which can greatly benefit data-hungry algorithms. Compared to similar systems, we utilize raw depth maps for odometry computation and loop closure refinement which results in better reconstructions. We acquire a building-scale 3D dataset (BS3D) and demonstrate its value by training an improved monocular depth estimation model. As a unique experiment, we benchmark visual-inertial odometry methods using both color and active infrared images.

在本文中，我们考虑了视觉同时定位和映射（SLAM）的实际应用中的问题。随着技术在广泛范围中的普及和应用，SLAM系统的可实用性已成为一个在准确性和鲁棒性之后，例如，如何保持系统的稳定性并实现低文本和低文本和中的准确姿势估计动态环境以及如何在真实场景中改善系统的普遍性和实时性能。动态对象在高度动态的环境中的影响。我们还提出了一种新型的全局灰色相似性（GGS）算法，以实现合理的钥匙扣选择和有效的环闭合检测（LCD）。受益于GGS，PLD-SLAM可以在大多数真实场景中实现实时准确的姿势估计，而无需预先训练和加载巨大的功能词典模型。为了验证拟议系统的性能，我们将其与公共数据集Kitti，Euroc MAV和我们提供的室内立体声数据集的现有最新方法（SOTA）方法进行了比较。实验表明，实验表明PLD-SLAM在大多数情况下确保稳定性和准确性，具有更好的实时性能。此外，通过分析GGS的实验结果，我们可以发现它在关键帧选择和LCD中具有出色的性能。

Simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) is one of the key components of a control system that aims to ensure autonomous navigation of a mobile robot in unknown environments. In a variety of practical cases a robot might need to travel long distances in order to accomplish its mission. This requires long-term work of SLAM methods and building large maps. Consequently the computational burden (including high memory consumption for map storage) becomes a bottleneck. Indeed, state-of-the-art SLAM algorithms include specific techniques and optimizations to tackle this challenge, still their performance in long-term scenarios needs proper assessment. To this end, we perform an empirical evaluation of two widespread state-of-the-art RGB-D SLAM methods, suitable for long-term navigation, i.e. RTAB-Map and Voxgraph. We evaluate them in a large simulated indoor environment, consisting of corridors and halls, while varying the odometer noise for a more realistic setup. We provide both qualitative and quantitative analysis of both methods uncovering their strengths and weaknesses. We find that both methods build a high-quality map with low odometry noise but tend to fail with high odometry noise. Voxgraph has lower relative trajectory estimation error and memory consumption than RTAB-Map, while its absolute error is higher.

In this paper, we present a novel method for integrating 3D LiDAR depth measurements into the existing ORB-SLAM3 by building upon the RGB-D mode. We propose and compare two methods of depth map generation: conventional computer vision methods, namely an inverse dilation operation, and a supervised deep learning-based approach. We integrate the former directly into the ORB-SLAM3 framework by adding a so-called RGB-L (LiDAR) mode that directly reads LiDAR point clouds. The proposed methods are evaluated on the KITTI Odometry dataset and compared to each other and the standard ORB-SLAM3 stereo method. We demonstrate that, depending on the environment, advantages in trajectory accuracy and robustness can be achieved. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the runtime of the ORB-SLAM3 algorithm can be reduced by more than 40 % compared to the stereo mode. The related code for the ORB-SLAM3 RGB-L mode will be available as open-source software under https://github.com/TUMFTM/ORB SLAM3 RGBL.

我们提出了一个基于深度神经网络深度预测的比例感知直接单眼遗传学的通用框架。与以前的深度信息仅部分利用的方法相反，我们制定了一种新颖的深度预测残差，使我们能够合并多视图深度信息。此外，我们建议使用截短的稳健成本函数，以防止考虑不一致的深度估计。光度法和深度预测测量值集成到紧密耦合的优化中，从而导致尺度感知的单眼系统，该系统不会累积尺度漂移。我们的建议没有针对具体的神经网络的特殊性，能够与绝大多数现有的深度预测解决方案一起工作。我们使用两个公开可用的神经网络在Kitti Odometry数据集上评估该提案的有效性和普遍性，并将其与类似方法进行比较，以及单眼和立体声猛击的最新方法。实验表明，我们的提议在很大程度上要优于经典的单眼大满贯，更精确的5至9倍，击败了类似的方法，并且具有更接近立体系统的精度。

A monocular visual-inertial system (VINS), consisting of a camera and a low-cost inertial measurement unit (IMU), forms the minimum sensor suite for metric six degreesof-freedom (DOF) state estimation. However, the lack of direct distance measurement poses significant challenges in terms of IMU processing, estimator initialization, extrinsic calibration, and nonlinear optimization. In this work, we present VINS-Mono: a robust and versatile monocular visual-inertial state estimator. Our approach starts with a robust procedure for estimator initialization and failure recovery. A tightly-coupled, nonlinear optimization-based method is used to obtain high accuracy visual-inertial odometry by fusing pre-integrated IMU measurements and feature observations. A loop detection module, in combination with our tightly-coupled formulation, enables relocalization with minimum computation overhead. We additionally perform four degrees-of-freedom pose graph optimization to enforce global consistency. We validate the performance of our system on public datasets and real-world experiments and compare against other state-of-the-art algorithms. We also perform onboard closed-loop autonomous flight on the MAV platform and port the algorithm to an iOS-based demonstration. We highlight that the proposed work is a reliable, complete, and versatile system that is applicable for different applications that require high accuracy localization. We open source our implementations for both PCs 1 and iOS mobile devices 2 .

我们提出了人类和几何重要性SLAM（HGI-SLAM），这是一种使用显着和几何特征循环封闭的新方法。循环闭合是SLAM的关键要素，具有许多已建立的方法来解决此问题。但是，使用基于几何或显着的特征，当前方法是狭窄的。我们将他们的成功合并为一个模型，该模型仅优于两种类型的方法。我们的方法利用廉价的单眼相机，不依赖于深度传感器或LIDAR。 HGI-SLAM利用几何和显着特征，将它们处理成描述符，并将其优化为一袋单词算法。通过使用并发线程并将我们的环闭合检测与Orb-Slam2梳理，我们的系统是一个完整的SLAM框架。我们对Kitti和Euroc数据集进行了HGI循环检测和HGI-SLAM的广泛评估。我们还对我们的功能进行定性分析。我们的方法是实时运行的，并且在有机环境中保持准确的方式对巨大的观点变化是可靠的。 HGI-SLAM是一种端到端的大满贯系统，仅需要单眼视觉，并且在性能上与最先进的SLAM方法相当。