Machine learning-based modeling of physical systems has experienced increased interest in recent years. Despite some impressive progress, there is still a lack of benchmarks for Scientific ML that are easy to use but still challenging and representative of a wide range of problems. We introduce PDEBench, a benchmark suite of time-dependent simulation tasks based on Partial Differential Equations (PDEs). PDEBench comprises both code and data to benchmark the performance of novel machine learning models against both classical numerical simulations and machine learning baselines. Our proposed set of benchmark problems contribute the following unique features: (1) A much wider range of PDEs compared to existing benchmarks, ranging from relatively common examples to more realistic and difficult problems; (2) much larger ready-to-use datasets compared to prior work, comprising multiple simulation runs across a larger number of initial and boundary conditions and PDE parameters; (3) more extensible source codes with user-friendly APIs for data generation and baseline results with popular machine learning models (FNO, U-Net, PINN, Gradient-Based Inverse Method). PDEBench allows researchers to extend the benchmark freely for their own purposes using a standardized API and to compare the performance of new models to existing baseline methods. We also propose new evaluation metrics with the aim to provide a more holistic understanding of learning methods in the context of Scientific ML. With those metrics we identify tasks which are challenging for recent ML methods and propose these tasks as future challenges for the community. The code is available at https://github.com/pdebench/PDEBench.
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物理信息的神经网络(PINN)是神经网络(NNS),它们作为神经网络本身的组成部分编码模型方程,例如部分微分方程(PDE)。如今,PINN是用于求解PDE,分数方程,积分分化方程和随机PDE的。这种新颖的方法已成为一个多任务学习框架,在该框架中,NN必须在减少PDE残差的同时拟合观察到的数据。本文对PINNS的文献进行了全面的综述:虽然该研究的主要目标是表征这些网络及其相关的优势和缺点。该综述还试图将出版物纳入更广泛的基于搭配的物理知识的神经网络,这些神经网络构成了香草·皮恩(Vanilla Pinn)以及许多其他变体,例如物理受限的神经网络(PCNN),各种HP-VPINN,变量HP-VPINN,VPINN,VPINN,变体。和保守的Pinn(CPINN)。该研究表明,大多数研究都集中在通过不同的激活功能,梯度优化技术,神经网络结构和损耗功能结构来定制PINN。尽管使用PINN的应用范围广泛,但通过证明其在某些情况下比有限元方法(FEM)等经典数值技术更可行的能力,但仍有可能的进步,最著名的是尚未解决的理论问题。
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这本数字本书包含在物理模拟的背景下与深度学习相关的一切实际和全面的一切。尽可能多,所有主题都带有Jupyter笔记本的形式的动手代码示例,以便快速入门。除了标准的受监督学习的数据中,我们将看看物理丢失约束,更紧密耦合的学习算法,具有可微分的模拟,以及加强学习和不确定性建模。我们生活在令人兴奋的时期:这些方法具有从根本上改变计算机模拟可以实现的巨大潜力。
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我们介绍了一种用于学习时空平流扩散过程的组成物理学意识的神经网络(FINN)。 FINN实现了一种新的方式,通过以组成方式模拟部分微分方程(PDE)的成分来实现与数值模拟的物理和结构知识结合人工神经网络的学习能力。导致单维和二维PDE(汉堡,扩散,扩散反应,Allen-Cahn)展示了FinN的卓越的建模精度和超出初始和边界条件的优异分配概率。只有十分之一的参数数量平均,Finn在所有情况下占纯机学习和其他最先进的物理知识模型 - 通常甚至通过多个数量级。此外,在扩散吸附场景中近似稀疏的实际数据时,Finn优于校准的物理模型,通过揭示观察过程的未知延迟因子来确认其泛化能力并显示出说明潜力。
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Recent years have witnessed a growth in mathematics for deep learning--which seeks a deeper understanding of the concepts of deep learning with mathematics, and explores how to make it more robust--and deep learning for mathematics, where deep learning algorithms are used to solve problems in mathematics. The latter has popularised the field of scientific machine learning where deep learning is applied to problems in scientific computing. Specifically, more and more neural network architectures have been developed to solve specific classes of partial differential equations (PDEs). Such methods exploit properties that are inherent to PDEs and thus solve the PDEs better than classical feed-forward neural networks, recurrent neural networks, and convolutional neural networks. This has had a great impact in the area of mathematical modeling where parametric PDEs are widely used to model most natural and physical processes arising in science and engineering, In this work, we review such methods and extend them for parametric studies as well as for solving the related inverse problems. We equally proceed to show their relevance in some industrial applications.
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Surrogate models are necessary to optimize meaningful quantities in physical dynamics as their recursive numerical resolutions are often prohibitively expensive. It is mainly the case for fluid dynamics and the resolution of Navier-Stokes equations. However, despite the fast-growing field of data-driven models for physical systems, reference datasets representing real-world phenomena are lacking. In this work, we develop AirfRANS, a dataset for studying the two-dimensional incompressible steady-state Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes equations over airfoils at a subsonic regime and for different angles of attacks. We also introduce metrics on the stress forces at the surface of geometries and visualization of boundary layers to assess the capabilities of models to accurately predict the meaningful information of the problem. Finally, we propose deep learning baselines on four machine learning tasks to study AirfRANS under different constraints for generalization considerations: big and scarce data regime, Reynolds number, and angle of attack extrapolation.
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Despite great progress in simulating multiphysics problems using the numerical discretization of partial differential equations (PDEs), one still cannot seamlessly incorporate noisy data into existing algorithms, mesh generation remains complex, and high-dimensional problems governed by parameterized PDEs cannot be tackled. Moreover, solving inverse problems with hidden physics is often prohibitively expensive and requires different formulations and elaborate computer codes. Machine learning has emerged as a promising alternative, but training deep neural networks requires big data, not always available for scientific problems. Instead, such networks can be trained from additional information obtained by enforcing the physical laws (for example, at random points in the continuous space-time domain). Such physics-informed learning integrates (noisy) data and mathematical models, and implements them through neural networks or other kernel-based regression networks. Moreover, it may be possible to design specialized network architectures that automatically satisfy some of the physical invariants for better accuracy, faster training and improved generalization. Here, we review some of the prevailing trends in embedding physics into machine learning, present some of the current capabilities and limitations and discuss diverse applications of physics-informed learning both for forward and inverse problems, including discovering hidden physics and tackling high-dimensional problems.
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We present an end-to-end framework to learn partial differential equations that brings together initial data production, selection of boundary conditions, and the use of physics-informed neural operators to solve partial differential equations that are ubiquitous in the study and modeling of physics phenomena. We first demonstrate that our methods reproduce the accuracy and performance of other neural operators published elsewhere in the literature to learn the 1D wave equation and the 1D Burgers equation. Thereafter, we apply our physics-informed neural operators to learn new types of equations, including the 2D Burgers equation in the scalar, inviscid and vector types. Finally, we show that our approach is also applicable to learn the physics of the 2D linear and nonlinear shallow water equations, which involve three coupled partial differential equations. We release our artificial intelligence surrogates and scientific software to produce initial data and boundary conditions to study a broad range of physically motivated scenarios. We provide the source code, an interactive website to visualize the predictions of our physics informed neural operators, and a tutorial for their use at the Data and Learning Hub for Science.
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在本文中,我们根据卷积神经网络训练湍流模型。这些学到的湍流模型改善了在模拟时为不可压缩的Navier-Stokes方程的溶解不足的低分辨率解。我们的研究涉及开发可区分的数值求解器,该求解器通过多个求解器步骤支持优化梯度的传播。这些属性的重要性是通过那些模型的出色稳定性和准确性来证明的,这些模型在训练过程中展开了更多求解器步骤。此外,我们基于湍流物理学引入损失项,以进一步提高模型的准确性。这种方法应用于三个二维的湍流场景,一种均匀的腐烂湍流案例,一个暂时进化的混合层和空间不断发展的混合层。与无模型模拟相比,我们的模型在长期A-posterii统计数据方面取得了重大改进,而无需将这些统计数据直接包含在学习目标中。在推论时,我们提出的方法还获得了相似准确的纯粹数值方法的实质性改进。
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具有经典数字求解器的湍流模拟需要非常高分辨率的网格来准确地解决动态。在这里,我们以低空间和时间分辨率培训学习模拟器,以捕获高分辨率产生的湍流动态。我们表明我们所提出的模型可以比各种科学相关指标的相同低分辨率的经典数字求解器更准确地模拟湍流动态。我们的模型从数据训练结束到底,能够以低分辨率学习一系列挑战性的混乱和动态动态,包括最先进的雅典娜++发动机产生的轨迹。我们表明,我们的更简单,通用体系结构优于来自所学到的湍流模拟文献的各种专业的湍流特异性架构。一般来说,我们看到学习的模拟器产生不稳定的轨迹;但是,我们表明调整训练噪音和时间下采样解决了这个问题。我们还发现,虽然超出培训分配的泛化是学习模型,训练噪声,卷积架构以及增加损失约束的挑战。广泛地,我们得出的结论是,我们所知的模拟器优于传统的求解器在较粗糙的网格上运行,并强调简单的设计选择可以提供稳定性和鲁棒的泛化。
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尽管在整个科学和工程中都无处不在,但只有少数部分微分方程(PDE)具有分析或封闭形式的解决方案。这激发了有关PDE的数值模拟的大量经典工作,最近,对数据驱动技术的研究旋转了机器学习(ML)。最近的一项工作表明,与机器学习的经典数值技术的混合体可以对任何一种方法提供重大改进。在这项工作中,我们表明,在纳入基于物理学的先验时,数值方案的选择至关重要。我们以基于傅立叶的光谱方法为基础,这些光谱方法比其他数值方案要高得多,以模拟使用平滑且周期性解决方案的PDE。具体而言,我们为流体动力学的三个模型PDE开发了ML增强的光谱求解器,从而提高了标准光谱求解器在相同分辨率下的准确性。我们还展示了一些关键设计原则,用于将机器学习和用于解决PDE的数值方法结合使用。
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动态系统参见在物理,生物学,化学等自然科学中广泛使用,以及电路分析,计算流体动力学和控制等工程学科。对于简单的系统,可以通过应用基本物理法来导出管理动态的微分方程。然而,对于更复杂的系统,这种方法变得非常困难。数据驱动建模是一种替代范式,可以使用真实系统的观察来了解系统的动态的近似值。近年来,对数据驱动的建模技术的兴趣增加,特别是神经网络已被证明提供了解决广泛任务的有效框架。本文提供了使用神经网络构建动态系统模型的不同方式的调查。除了基础概述外,我们还审查了相关的文献,概述了这些建模范式必须克服的数值模拟中最重要的挑战。根据审查的文献和确定的挑战,我们提供了关于有前途的研究领域的讨论。
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数据驱动的湍流建模正在经历数据科学算法和硬件开发后的兴趣激增。我们讨论了一种使用可区分物理范式的方法,该方法将已知的物理学与机器学习结合起来,以开发汉堡湍流的闭合模型。我们将1D汉堡系统视为一种原型测试问题,用于建模以对流为主的湍流问题中未解决的术语。我们训练一系列模型,这些模型在后验损失函数上结合了不同程度的物理假设,以测试模型在一系列系统参数(包括粘度,时间和网格分辨率)上的疗效。我们发现,以部分微分方程形式的归纳偏差的约束模型包含已知物理或现有闭合方法会产生高度数据效率,准确和可推广的模型,并且表现优于最先进的基准。以物理信息形式添加结构还为模型带来了一定程度的解释性,可能为封闭建模的未来提供了垫脚石。
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标准的神经网络可以近似一般的非线性操作员,要么通过数学运算符的组合(例如,在对流 - 扩散反应部分微分方程中)的组合,要么仅仅是黑匣子,例如黑匣子,例如一个系统系统。第一个神经操作员是基于严格的近似理论于2019年提出的深层操作员网络(DeepOnet)。从那时起,已经发布了其他一些较少的一般操作员,例如,基于图神经网络或傅立叶变换。对于黑匣子系统,对神经操作员的培训仅是数据驱动的,但是如果知道管理方程式可以在培训期间将其纳入损失功能,以开发物理知识的神经操作员。神经操作员可以用作设计问题,不确定性量化,自主系统以及几乎任何需要实时推断的应用程序中的代替代物。此外,通过将它们与相对轻的训练耦合,可以将独立的预训练deponets用作复杂多物理系统的组成部分。在这里,我们介绍了Deponet,傅立叶神经操作员和图神经操作员的评论,以及适当的扩展功能扩展,并突出显示它们在计算机械师中的各种应用中的实用性,包括多孔媒体,流体力学和固体机制, 。
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随机偏微分方程(SPDES)是在随机性影响下模拟动态系统的选择的数学工具。通过将搜索SPDE的温和解决方案作为神经定点问题,我们介绍了神经SPDE模型,以便从部分观察到的数据中使用(可能随机)的PDE溶液运营商。我们的模型为两类物理启发神经架构提供了扩展。一方面,它延伸了神经CDES,SDES,RDE - RNN的连续时间类似物,因为即使当后者在无限尺寸状态空间中演变时,它也能够处理进入的顺序信息。另一方面,它扩展了神经运营商 - 神经网络的概括到函数空间之间的模型映射 - 因为它可以用于学习解决方案运算符$(U_0,\ xi)\ MapSto U $同时上的SPDES初始条件$ u_0 $和驾驶噪声$ \ xi $的实现。神经SPDE是不变的,它可以使用基于记忆有效的隐式分化的反向化的训练,并且一旦接受训练,其评估比传统求解器快3个数量级。在包括2D随机Navier-Stokes方程的各种半线性SPDES的实验证明了神经间隙如何能够以更好的准确性学习复杂的时空动态,并仅使用适度的培训数据与所有替代模型相比。
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高维时空动力学通常可以在低维子空间中编码。用于建模,表征,设计和控制此类大规模系统的工程应用通常依赖于降低尺寸,以实时计算解决方案。降低维度的常见范例包括线性方法,例如奇异值分解(SVD)和非线性方法,例如卷积自动编码器(CAE)的变体。但是,这些编码技术缺乏有效地表示与时空数据相关的复杂性的能力,后者通常需要可变的几何形状,非均匀的网格分辨率,自适应网格化和/或参数依赖性。为了解决这些实用的工程挑战,我们提出了一个称为神经隐式流(NIF)的一般框架,该框架可以实现大型,参数,时空数据的网格不稳定,低级别表示。 NIF由两个修改的多层感知器(MLP)组成:(i)shapenet,它分离并代表空间复杂性,以及(ii)参数,该参数解释了任何其他输入复杂性,包括参数依赖关系,时间和传感器测量值。我们演示了NIF用于参数替代建模的实用性,从而实现了复杂时空动力学的可解释表示和压缩,有效的多空间质量任务以及改善了稀疏重建的通用性能。
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数据驱动学习方法与经典仿真之间的接口造成了一个有趣的字段,提供了多种新应用。在这项工作中,我们建立了物理知识的神经网络(Pinns)的概念,并在浅水方程(SWE)模型中采用它们。这些模型在建模和模拟自由表面流程中起重要作用,例如洪波传播或海啸波。彼此比较Pinn残差的不同配方,并评估多种优化以加速收敛速率。我们用不同的1-D和2-D实验测试这些并最终证明关于具有不同沐浴浴的SWE场景,该方法能够与直接数值模拟相比,具有8.9美元的总相对$ L_2 $误差的直接数值模拟。e-3 $。
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许多物理过程,例如天气现象或流体力学由部分微分方程(PDE)管辖。使用神经网络建模这种动态系统是一个新兴的研究领域。然而,目前的方法以各种方式限制:它们需要关于控制方程的先验知识,并限于线性或一阶方程。在这项工作中,我们提出了一种将卷积神经网络(CNNS)与可微分的颂歌求解器结合到模型动力系统的模型。我们表明,标准PDE求解器中使用的线路方法可以使用卷曲来表示,这使得CNN是对参数化任意PDE动态的自然选择。我们的模型可以应用于任何数据而不需要任何关于管理PDE的知识。我们评估通过求解各种PDE而产生的数据集的NeuralPDE,覆盖更高的订单,非线性方程和多个空间尺寸。
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气候,化学或天体物理学中的数值模拟在计算上对于高分辨率下的不确定性定量或参数探索而言太昂贵。减少或替代模型的多个数量级更快,但是传统的替代物是僵化或不准确和纯机器学习(ML)基于基于数据的替代物。我们提出了一个混合,灵活的替代模型,该模型利用已知的物理学来模拟大规模动力学,并将学习到难以模拟的项,该术语称为参数化或闭合,并捕获了细界面对大型动力学的影响。利用神经操作员,我们是第一个学习独立于网格的,非本地和灵活的参数化的人。我们的\ textit {多尺度神经操作员}是由多尺度建模的丰富文献进行的,具有准线性运行时复杂性,比最先进的参数化更准确或更灵活,并且在混乱方程的多尺度lorenz96上证明。
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Deep learning has achieved remarkable success in diverse applications; however, its use in solving partial differential equations (PDEs) has emerged only recently. Here, we present an overview of physics-informed neural networks (PINNs), which embed a PDE into the loss of the neural network using automatic differentiation. The PINN algorithm is simple, and it can be applied to different types of PDEs, including integro-differential equations, fractional PDEs, and stochastic PDEs. Moreover, from the implementation point of view, PINNs solve inverse problems as easily as forward problems. We propose a new residual-based adaptive refinement (RAR) method to improve the training efficiency of PINNs. For pedagogical reasons, we compare the PINN algorithm to a standard finite element method. We also present a Python library for PINNs, DeepXDE, which is designed to serve both as an education tool to be used in the classroom as well as a research tool for solving problems in computational science and engineering. Specifically, DeepXDE can solve forward problems given initial and boundary conditions, as well as inverse problems given some extra measurements. DeepXDE supports complex-geometry domains based on the technique of constructive solid geometry, and enables the user code to be compact, resembling closely the mathematical formulation. We introduce the usage of DeepXDE and its customizability, and we also demonstrate the capability of PINNs and the user-friendliness of DeepXDE for five different examples. More broadly, DeepXDE contributes to the more rapid development of the emerging Scientific Machine Learning field.
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