Machine learning algorithms frequently require careful tuning of model hyperparameters, regularization terms, and optimization parameters. Unfortunately, this tuning is often a "black art" that requires expert experience, unwritten rules of thumb, or sometimes brute-force search. Much more appealing is the idea of developing automatic approaches which can optimize the performance of a given learning algorithm to the task at hand. In this work, we consider the automatic tuning problem within the framework of Bayesian optimization, in which a learning algorithm's generalization performance is modeled as a sample from a Gaussian process (GP). The tractable posterior distribution induced by the GP leads to efficient use of the information gathered by previous experiments, enabling optimal choices about what parameters to try next. Here we show how the effects of the Gaussian process prior and the associated inference procedure can have a large impact on the success or failure of Bayesian optimization. We show that thoughtful choices can lead to results that exceed expert-level performance in tuning machine learning algorithms. We also describe new algorithms that take into account the variable cost (duration) of learning experiments and that can leverage the presence of multiple cores for parallel experimentation. We show that these proposed algorithms improve on previous automatic procedures and can reach or surpass human expert-level optimization on a diverse set of contemporary algorithms including latent Dirichlet allocation, structured SVMs and convolutional neural networks.

Bayesian optimization has recently been proposed as a framework for automatically tuning the hyperparameters of machine learning models and has been shown to yield state-of-the-art performance with impressive ease and efficiency. In this paper, we explore whether it is possible to transfer the knowledge gained from previous optimizations to new tasks in order to find optimal hyperparameter settings more efficiently. Our approach is based on extending multi-task Gaussian processes to the framework of Bayesian optimization. We show that this method significantly speeds up the optimization process when compared to the standard single-task approach. We further propose a straightforward extension of our algorithm in order to jointly minimize the average error across multiple tasks and demonstrate how this can be used to greatly speed up k-fold cross-validation. Lastly, we propose an adaptation of a recently developed acquisition function, entropy search, to the cost-sensitive, multi-task setting. We demonstrate the utility of this new acquisition function by leveraging a small dataset to explore hyperparameter settings for a large dataset. Our algorithm dynamically chooses which dataset to query in order to yield the most information per unit cost.

Bayesian optimization is an effective methodology for the global optimization of functions with expensive evaluations. It relies on querying a distribution over functions defined by a relatively cheap surrogate model. An accurate model for this distribution over functions is critical to the effectiveness of the approach, and is typically fit using Gaussian processes (GPs). However, since GPs scale cubically with the number of observations, it has been challenging to handle objectives whose optimization requires many evaluations, and as such, massively parallelizing the optimization.In this work, we explore the use of neural networks as an alternative to GPs to model distributions over functions. We show that performing adaptive basis function regression with a neural network as the parametric form performs competitively with state-of-the-art GP-based approaches, but scales linearly with the number of data rather than cubically. This allows us to achieve a previously intractable degree of parallelism, which we apply to large scale hyperparameter optimization, rapidly finding competitive models on benchmark object recognition tasks using convolutional networks, and image caption generation using neural language models.

由于其数据效率，贝叶斯优化已经出现在昂贵的黑盒优化的最前沿。近年来，关于新贝叶斯优化算法及其应用的发展的研究激增。因此，本文试图对贝叶斯优化的最新进展进行全面和更新的调查，并确定有趣的开放问题。我们将贝叶斯优化的现有工作分为九个主要群体，并根据所提出的算法的动机和重点。对于每个类别，我们介绍了替代模型的构建和采集功能的适应的主要进步。最后，我们讨论了开放的问题，并提出了有希望的未来研究方向，尤其是在分布式和联合优化系统中的异质性，隐私保护和公平性方面。

Modern deep learning methods are very sensitive to many hyperparameters, and, due to the long training times of state-of-the-art models, vanilla Bayesian hyperparameter optimization is typically computationally infeasible. On the other hand, bandit-based configuration evaluation approaches based on random search lack guidance and do not converge to the best configurations as quickly. Here, we propose to combine the benefits of both Bayesian optimization and banditbased methods, in order to achieve the best of both worlds: strong anytime performance and fast convergence to optimal configurations. We propose a new practical state-of-the-art hyperparameter optimization method, which consistently outperforms both Bayesian optimization and Hyperband on a wide range of problem types, including high-dimensional toy functions, support vector machines, feed-forward neural networks, Bayesian neural networks, deep reinforcement learning, and convolutional neural networks. Our method is robust and versatile, while at the same time being conceptually simple and easy to implement.

贝叶斯优化（BO）已成为许多昂贵现实世界功能的全球优化的流行策略。与普遍认为BO适合优化黑框功能的信念相反，它实际上需要有关这些功能特征的域知识才能成功部署BO。这样的领域知识通常表现在高斯流程先验中，这些先验指定了有关功能的初始信念。但是，即使有专家知识，选择先验也不是一件容易的事。对于复杂的机器学习模型上的超参数调谐问题尤其如此，在这种模型中，调整目标的景观通常很难理解。我们寻求一种设定这些功能性先验的替代实践。特别是，我们考虑了从类似功能的数据中，使我们可以先验地进行更紧密的分布。从理论上讲，我们与预先训练的先验表示对BO的遗憾。为了验证我们在现实的模型培训设置中的方法，我们通过训练在流行图像和文本数据集上的数以万计的近状态模型配置来收集了大型多任务超参数调谐数据集，以及蛋白质序列数据集。我们的结果表明，平均而言，我们的方法能够比最佳竞争方法更有效地定位良好的超参数。

We present the GPry algorithm for fast Bayesian inference of general (non-Gaussian) posteriors with a moderate number of parameters. GPry does not need any pre-training, special hardware such as GPUs, and is intended as a drop-in replacement for traditional Monte Carlo methods for Bayesian inference. Our algorithm is based on generating a Gaussian Process surrogate model of the log-posterior, aided by a Support Vector Machine classifier that excludes extreme or non-finite values. An active learning scheme allows us to reduce the number of required posterior evaluations by two orders of magnitude compared to traditional Monte Carlo inference. Our algorithm allows for parallel evaluations of the posterior at optimal locations, further reducing wall-clock times. We significantly improve performance using properties of the posterior in our active learning scheme and for the definition of the GP prior. In particular we account for the expected dynamical range of the posterior in different dimensionalities. We test our model against a number of synthetic and cosmological examples. GPry outperforms traditional Monte Carlo methods when the evaluation time of the likelihood (or the calculation of theoretical observables) is of the order of seconds; for evaluation times of over a minute it can perform inference in days that would take months using traditional methods. GPry is distributed as an open source Python package (pip install gpry) and can also be found at https://github.com/jonaselgammal/GPry.

Bayesian optimization provides sample-efficient global optimization for a broad range of applications, including automatic machine learning, engineering, physics, and experimental design. We introduce BOTORCH, a modern programming framework for Bayesian optimization that combines Monte-Carlo (MC) acquisition functions, a novel sample average approximation optimization approach, autodifferentiation, and variance reduction techniques. BOTORCH's modular design facilitates flexible specification and optimization of probabilistic models written in PyTorch, simplifying implementation of new acquisition functions. Our approach is backed by novel theoretical convergence results and made practical by a distinctive algorithmic foundation that leverages fast predictive distributions, hardware acceleration, and deterministic optimization. We also propose a novel "one-shot" formulation of the Knowledge Gradient, enabled by a combination of our theoretical and software contributions. In experiments, we demonstrate the improved sample efficiency of BOTORCH relative to other popular libraries.34th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2020),

许多机器学习问题可以在估计功能的背景下构成，并且通常是时间依赖的功能，随着观察结果的到来，这些功能是实时估计的。高斯工艺（GPS）是建模实现非线性函数的吸引人选择，这是由于其灵活性和不确定性定量。但是，典型的GP回归模型有几个缺点：1）相对于观测值的常规GP推理量表$ O（n^{3}）$； 2）顺序更新GP模型并非微不足道； 3）协方差内核通常在该函数上执行平稳性约束，而具有非平稳协方差内核的GP通常在实践中使用了很难使用。为了克服这些问题，我们提出了一种顺序的蒙特卡洛算法，以适合GP的无限混合物，这些混合物捕获非平稳行为，同时允许在线分布式推理。我们的方法从经验上改善了在时间序列数据中存在非平稳性的在线GP估计的最先进方法的性能。为了证明我们在应用设置中提出的在线高斯流程混合物方法的实用性，我们表明我们可以使用在线高斯工艺匪徒成功实现优化算法。

尽管自动超参数优化（HPO）的所有好处，但大多数现代的HPO算法本身都是黑盒子。这使得很难理解导致所选配置，减少对HPO的信任，从而阻碍其广泛采用的决策过程。在这里，我们研究了HPO与可解释的机器学习（IML）方法（例如部分依赖图）的组合。但是，如果将这种方法天真地应用于HPO过程的实验数据，则优化器的潜在采样偏差会扭曲解释。我们提出了一种修改的HPO方法，该方法有效地平衡了对全局最佳W.R.T.的搜索。预测性能以及通过耦合贝叶斯优化和贝叶斯算法执行的基础黑框函数的IML解释的可靠估计。在神经网络的合成目标和HPO的基准情况下，我们证明我们的方法返回对基础黑盒的更可靠的解释，而不会损失优化性能。

贝叶斯优化（BO）算法在涉及昂贵的黑盒功能的应用中表现出了显着的成功。传统上，BO被设置为一个顺序决策过程，该过程通过采集函数和先前的功能（例如高斯过程）来估计查询点的实用性。然而，最近，通过密度比率估计（BORE）对BO进行重新制定允许将采集函数重新诠释为概率二进制分类器，从而消除了对函数的显式先验和提高可伸缩性的需求。在本文中，我们介绍了对孔的遗憾和算法扩展的理论分析，并提高了不确定性估计。我们还表明，通过将问题重新提交为近似贝叶斯推断，可以自然地扩展到批处理优化设置。所得算法配备了理论性能保证，并在一系列实验中对其他批处理基本线进行了评估。

Bayesian Optimization（Bo）是全球优化昂贵的客观功能的框架。古典BO方法假设客观函数是一个黑匣子。但是，有关客观函数计算的内部信息通常可用。例如，在使用模拟优化制造行的吞吐量时，除了整体吞吐量之外，我们还会观察每个工作站等待等待的部件数。最近的BO方法利用此类内部信息显着提高性能。我们称之为这些“灰盒”BO方法，因为它们将客观计算视为部分可观察且甚至可修改，将黑盒方法与所谓的“白盒”的第一原理进行客观函数计算的知识。本教程描述了这些方法，专注于复合物镜功能的博，其中可以观察和选择性地评估饲喂整体目标的单个成分;和多保真博，其中一个人可以通过改变评估oracle的参数来评估目标函数的更便宜的近似。

贝叶斯优化提供了一种优化昂贵黑匣子功能的有效方法。它最近已应用于流体动力学问题。本文研究并在一系列合成测试函数上从经验上比较了常见的贝叶斯优化算法。它研究了采集函数和训练样本数量的选择，采集功能的精确计算以及基于蒙特卡洛的方法以及单点和多点优化。该测试功能被认为涵盖了各种各样的挑战，因此是理想的测试床，以了解贝叶斯优化的性能，并确定贝叶斯优化表现良好和差的一般情况。这些知识可以用于应用程序中，包括流体动力学的知识，这些知识是未知的。这项调查的结果表明，要做出的选择与相对简单的功能不相关，而乐观的采集功能（例如上限限制）应首选更复杂的目标函数。此外，蒙特卡洛方法的结果与分析采集函数的结果相当。在目标函数允许并行评估的情况下，多点方法提供了更快的替代方法，但它可能需要进行更多的客观函数评估。

计算高效的非近视贝叶斯优化（BO）的最新进展提高了传统近视方法的查询效率，如预期的改进，同时仅适度提高计算成本。然而，这些进展在很大程度上是有限的，因为不受约束的优化。对于约束优化，少数现有的非近视博方法需要重量计算。例如，一个现有的非近视约束BO方法[LAM和Willcox，2017]依赖于计算昂贵的不可靠的暴力衍生物的无可靠性衍生物优化蒙特卡罗卷展卷采集功能。使用Reparameterization技巧进行更有效的基于衍生物的优化的方法，如在不受约束的环境中，如样本平均近似和无限扰动分析，不扩展：约束在取样的采集功能表面中引入阻碍其优化的不连续性。此外，我们认为非近视在受限制问题中更为重要，因为违反限制的恐惧将近视方法推动了可行和不可行区域之间的边界，减缓了具有严格约束的最佳解决方案的发现。在本文中，我们提出了一种计算的有效的两步保护受限贝叶斯优化采集功能（2-OPT-C）支持顺序和批处理设置。为了实现快速采集功能优化，我们开发了一种新的基于似然比的非偏见估计，其两步最佳采集函数的梯度不使用Reparameterization技巧。在数值实验中，2-OPT-C通常通过先前的方法通过2倍或更多的查询效率，并且在某些情况下通过10倍或更大。

贝叶斯优化（BO）被广泛用于优化随机黑匣子功能。尽管大多数BO方法都集中在优化条件期望上，但许多应用程序都需要规避风险的策略，并且需要考虑分配尾巴的替代标准。在本文中，我们提出了针对贝叶斯分位数和预期回归的新变异模型，这些模型非常适合异形的噪声设置。我们的模型分别由有条件分位数（或期望）的两个潜在高斯过程和不对称可能性函数的比例参数组成。此外，我们提出了基于最大值熵搜索和汤普森采样的两种BO策略，这些策略是针对此类型号量身定制的，可以容纳大量点。与现有的BO进行规避风险优化的方法相反，我们的策略可以直接针对分位数和预期进行优化，而无需复制观测值或假设噪声的参数形式。如实验部分所示，所提出的方法清楚地表现出异质的非高斯案例中的最新状态。

贝叶斯优化是黑匣子功能优化的流行框架。多重方法方法可以通过利用昂贵目标功能的低保真表示来加速贝叶斯优化。流行的多重贝叶斯策略依赖于采样政策，这些策略解释了在特定意见下评估目标函数的立即奖励，从而排除了更多的信息收益，这些收益可能会获得更多的步骤。本文提出了一个非侧重多倍数贝叶斯框架，以掌握优化的未来步骤的长期奖励。我们的计算策略具有两步的lookahead多因素采集函数，可最大程度地提高累积奖励，从而测量解决方案的改进，超过了前面的两个步骤。我们证明，所提出的算法在流行的基准优化问题上优于标准的多尺寸贝叶斯框架。

贝叶斯优化是一种过程，允许获得黑盒功能的全局最佳功能，并且在超参数优化等应用中有用。在目标函数的形状上估计的不确定性估计是引导优化过程的工具。但是，如果客观函数违反基础模型（例如，高斯）的假设，这些估计可能是不准确的。我们提出了一种简单的算法，可以通过目标函数校准后部分布的不确定性作为贝叶斯型优化过程的一部分。我们表明，通过提高校准后分布的不确定性估计，贝叶斯优化使得更好的决策并以较少的步骤到达全球最佳。我们表明，该技术提高了贝叶斯优化对标准基准函数和超参数优化任务的性能。

我们考虑使用昂贵的功能评估（也称为实验）的黑匣子多目标优化（MOO）的问题，其中目标是通过最小化实验的总资源成本来近似真正的帕累托解决方案。例如，在硬件设计优化中，我们需要使用昂贵的计算模拟找到权衡性能，能量和面积开销的设计。关键挑战是选择使用最小资源揭示高质量解决方案的实验顺序。在本文中，我们提出了一种基于输出空间熵（OSE）搜索原理来解决MOO问题的一般框架：选择最大化每单位资源成本的信息的实验，这是真正的帕累托前线所获得的信息。我们适当地实例化了OSE搜索的原理，以导出以下四个Moo问题设置的高效算法：1）最基本的EM单一保真设置，实验昂贵且准确; 2）处理EM黑匣子约束}在不执行实验的情况下无法进行评估; 3）离散的多保真设置，实验可以在消耗的资源量和评估准确度时变化; 4）EM连续保真设置，其中连续函数近似导致巨大的实验空间。不同综合和现实世界基准测试的实验表明，基于OSE搜索的算法在既有计算效率和MOO解决方案的准确性方面改进了最先进的方法。

Performance of machine learning algorithms depends critically on identifying a good set of hyperparameters. While recent approaches use Bayesian optimization to adaptively select configurations, we focus on speeding up random search through adaptive resource allocation and early-stopping. We formulate hyperparameter optimization as a pure-exploration nonstochastic infinite-armed bandit problem where a predefined resource like iterations, data samples, or features is allocated to randomly sampled configurations. We introduce a novel algorithm, Hyperband, for this framework and analyze its theoretical properties, providing several desirable guarantees. Furthermore, we compare Hyperband with popular Bayesian optimization methods on a suite of hyperparameter optimization problems. We observe that Hyperband can provide over an order-of-magnitude speedup over our competitor set on a variety of deep-learning and kernel-based learning problems.

深度神经网络（DNNS）和数据集的增长不断上升，这激发了对同时选择和培训的有效解决方案的需求。许多迭代学习者的高参数优化方法（HPO）的许多方法，包括DNNS试图通过查询和学习响应表面来解决该问题的最佳表面来解决此问题。但是，这些方法中的许多方法都会产生近视疑问，不考虑有关响应结构的先验知识和/或执行偏见的成本感知搜索，当指定总成本预算时，所有这些都会加剧识别表现最好的模型。本文提出了一种新颖的方法，称为迭代学习者（BAPI），以在成本预算有限的情况下解决HPO问题。 BAPI是一种有效的非洋流贝叶斯优化解决方案，可以说明预算，并利用有关目标功能和成本功能的先验知识来选择更好的配置，并在评估期间（培训）做出更明智的决策。针对迭代学习者的不同HPO基准测试的实验表明，在大多数情况下，BAPI的性能比最先进的基线表现更好。