论证挖掘任务需要知情的低到高复杂性语言现象和常识性知识的知情范围。先前的工作表明，预训练的语言模型在使用转移学习技术应用并建立在不同的训练前目标上时，在编码语法和语义语言现象方面非常有效。它仍然是一个问题，即现有的预训练的语言模型涵盖了参数挖掘任务的复杂性。我们依靠实验来阐明从不同词汇语义家族获得的语言模型如何利用识别论证话语单位任务的绩效。实验结果表明，转移学习技术对任务有益，并且当前的方法可能不足以利用来自不同词汇语义家族的常识性知识。

基于变压器的语言模型最近在许多自然语言任务中取得了显着的结果。但是，通常通过利用大量培训数据来实现排行榜的性能，并且很少通过将明确的语言知识编码为神经模型。这使许多人质疑语言学对现代自然语言处理的相关性。在本文中，我介绍了几个案例研究，以说明理论语言学和神经语言模型仍然相互关联。首先，语言模型通过提供一个客观的工具来测量语义距离，这对语言学家很有用，语义距离很难使用传统方法。另一方面，语言理论通过提供框架和数据源来探究我们的语言模型，以了解语言理解的特定方面，从而有助于语言建模研究。本论文贡献了三项研究，探讨了语言模型中语法 - 听觉界面的不同方面。在论文的第一部分中，我将语言模型应用于单词类灵活性的问题。我将Mbert作为语义距离测量的来源，我提供了有利于将单词类灵活性分析为方向过程的证据。在论文的第二部分中，我提出了一种方法来测量语言模型中间层的惊奇方法。我的实验表明，包含形态句法异常的句子触发了语言模型早期的惊喜，而不是语义和常识异常。最后，在论文的第三部分中，我适应了一些心理语言学研究，以表明语言模型包含了论证结构结构的知识。总而言之，我的论文在自然语言处理，语言理论和心理语言学之间建立了新的联系，以为语言模型的解释提供新的观点。

The rapid advancement of AI technology has made text generation tools like GPT-3 and ChatGPT increasingly accessible, scalable, and effective. This can pose serious threat to the credibility of various forms of media if these technologies are used for plagiarism, including scientific literature and news sources. Despite the development of automated methods for paraphrase identification, detecting this type of plagiarism remains a challenge due to the disparate nature of the datasets on which these methods are trained. In this study, we review traditional and current approaches to paraphrase identification and propose a refined typology of paraphrases. We also investigate how this typology is represented in popular datasets and how under-representation of certain types of paraphrases impacts detection capabilities. Finally, we outline new directions for future research and datasets in the pursuit of more effective paraphrase detection using AI.

Despite extensive research efforts in recent years, computational argumentation (CA) remains one of the most challenging areas of natural language processing. The reason for this is the inherent complexity of the cognitive processes behind human argumentation, which integrate a plethora of different types of knowledge, ranging from topic-specific facts and common sense to rhetorical knowledge. The integration of knowledge from such a wide range in CA requires modeling capabilities far beyond many other natural language understanding tasks. Existing research on mining, assessing, reasoning over, and generating arguments largely acknowledges that much more knowledge is needed to accurately model argumentation computationally. However, a systematic overview of the types of knowledge introduced in existing CA models is missing, hindering targeted progress in the field. Adopting the operational definition of knowledge as any task-relevant normative information not provided as input, the survey paper at hand fills this gap by (1) proposing a taxonomy of types of knowledge required in CA tasks, (2) systematizing the large body of CA work according to the reliance on and exploitation of these knowledge types for the four main research areas in CA, and (3) outlining and discussing directions for future research efforts in CA.

Contextualized representation models such as ELMo (Peters et al., 2018a) and BERT (Devlin et al., 2018) have recently achieved state-of-the-art results on a diverse array of downstream NLP tasks. Building on recent token-level probing work, we introduce a novel edge probing task design and construct a broad suite of sub-sentence tasks derived from the traditional structured NLP pipeline. We probe word-level contextual representations from four recent models and investigate how they encode sentence structure across a range of syntactic, semantic, local, and long-range phenomena. We find that existing models trained on language modeling and translation produce strong representations for syntactic phenomena, but only offer comparably small improvements on semantic tasks over a non-contextual baseline.

The relationship between words in a sentence often tells us more about the underlying semantic content of a document than its actual words, individually. In this work, we propose two novel algorithms, called Flexible Lexical Chain II and Fixed Lexical Chain II. These algorithms combine the semantic relations derived from lexical chains, prior knowledge from lexical databases, and the robustness of the distributional hypothesis in word embeddings as building blocks forming a single system. In short, our approach has three main contributions: (i) a set of techniques that fully integrate word embeddings and lexical chains; (ii) a more robust semantic representation that considers the latent relation between words in a document; and (iii) lightweight word embeddings models that can be extended to any natural language task. We intend to assess the knowledge of pre-trained models to evaluate their robustness in the document classification task. The proposed techniques are tested against seven word embeddings algorithms using five different machine learning classifiers over six scenarios in the document classification task. Our results show the integration between lexical chains and word embeddings representations sustain state-of-the-art results, even against more complex systems.

For natural language understanding (NLU) technology to be maximally useful, it must be able to process language in a way that is not exclusive to a single task, genre, or dataset. In pursuit of this objective, we introduce the General Language Understanding Evaluation (GLUE) benchmark, a collection of tools for evaluating the performance of models across a diverse set of existing NLU tasks. By including tasks with limited training data, GLUE is designed to favor and encourage models that share general linguistic knowledge across tasks. GLUE also includes a hand-crafted diagnostic test suite that enables detailed linguistic analysis of models. We evaluate baselines based on current methods for transfer and representation learning and find that multi-task training on all tasks performs better than training a separate model per task. However, the low absolute performance of our best model indicates the need for improved general NLU systems.

当前的因果文本挖掘数据集在目标，数据覆盖率和注释方案中有所不同。这些不一致的努力阻止了建模能力和模型性能的公平比较。很少有数据集包含因果跨度注释，这是端到端因果提取所需的。因此，我们提出了Unicausal，这是跨三个任务的因果文本开采的统一基准：因果序列分类，因果效应跨度检测和因果对分类。我们合并了六个高质量人类注销语料库的注释和对齐注释，分别为每个任务分别为58,720、12,144和69,165个示例。由于因果关系的定义可以是主观的，因此我们的框架旨在允许研究人员处理某些或所有数据集和任务。作为初始基准，我们将BERT预培训模型调整为我们的任务并生成基线得分。对于序列分类，我们获得了70.10％的二进制F1得分，跨度检测获得了52.42％的宏F1得分，对成对分类获得了84.68％的二进制F1得分。

自然语言推论（NLI）是自然语言处理中的热门话题研究，句子之间的矛盾检测是NLI的特殊情况。这被认为是一项困难的NLP任务，当在许多NLP应用程序中添加为组件时，其影响很大，例如问答系统，文本摘要。阿拉伯语是由于其丰富的词汇，语义歧义而检测矛盾的最具挑战性的低资源语言之一。我们创建了一个超过12K句子的数据集并命名为Arnli，这将是公开可用的。此外，我们采用了一种新的模型，该模型受到斯坦福大学矛盾检测的启发，提出了有关英语的解决方案。我们提出了一种方法，以使用矛盾向量与语言模型向量作为机器学习模型的输入来检测阿拉伯语对句子之间的矛盾。我们分析了不同传统的机器学习分类器的结果，并比较了他们在创建的数据集（Arnli）和Pheme，病态的英语数据集的自动翻译上进行了比较。使用随机森林分类器，精度为99％，60％和75％的Pheme，Sick和Arnli的最佳结果。

Contextual word representations derived from large-scale neural language models are successful across a diverse set of NLP tasks, suggesting that they encode useful and transferable features of language. To shed light on the linguistic knowledge they capture, we study the representations produced by several recent pretrained contextualizers (variants of ELMo, the OpenAI transformer language model, and BERT) with a suite of seventeen diverse probing tasks. We find that linear models trained on top of frozen contextual representations are competitive with state-of-the-art task-specific models in many cases, but fail on tasks requiring fine-grained linguistic knowledge (e.g., conjunct identification). To investigate the transferability of contextual word representations, we quantify differences in the transferability of individual layers within contextualizers, especially between recurrent neural networks (RNNs) and transformers. For instance, higher layers of RNNs are more taskspecific, while transformer layers do not exhibit the same monotonic trend. In addition, to better understand what makes contextual word representations transferable, we compare language model pretraining with eleven supervised pretraining tasks. For any given task, pretraining on a closely related task yields better performance than language model pretraining (which is better on average) when the pretraining dataset is fixed. However, language model pretraining on more data gives the best results.

对于自然语言处理应用可能是有问题的，因为它们的含义不能从其构成词语推断出来。缺乏成功的方法方法和足够大的数据集防止了用于检测成语的机器学习方法的开发，特别是对于在训练集中不发生的表达式。我们提出了一种叫做小鼠的方法，它使用上下文嵌入来实现此目的。我们展示了一个新的多字表达式数据集，具有文字和惯用含义，并使用它根据两个最先进的上下文单词嵌入式培训分类器：Elmo和Bert。我们表明，使用两个嵌入式的深度神经网络比现有方法更好地执行，并且能够检测惯用词使用，即使对于训练集中不存在的表达式。我们展示了开发模型的交叉传输，并分析了所需数据集的大小。

Recent progress in pretraining language models on large textual corpora led to a surge of improvements for downstream NLP tasks. Whilst learning linguistic knowledge, these models may also be storing relational knowledge present in the training data, and may be able to answer queries structured as "fillin-the-blank" cloze statements. Language models have many advantages over structured knowledge bases: they require no schema engineering, allow practitioners to query about an open class of relations, are easy to extend to more data, and require no human supervision to train. We present an in-depth analysis of the relational knowledge already present (without fine-tuning) in a wide range of state-of-theart pretrained language models. We find that (i) without fine-tuning, BERT contains relational knowledge competitive with traditional NLP methods that have some access to oracle knowledge, (ii) BERT also does remarkably well on open-domain question answering against a supervised baseline, and (iii) certain types of factual knowledge are learned much more readily than others by standard language model pretraining approaches. The surprisingly strong ability of these models to recall factual knowledge without any fine-tuning demonstrates their potential as unsupervised open-domain QA systems. The code to reproduce our analysis is available at https: //github.com/facebookresearch/LAMA.

This paper investigates the ability of artificial neural networks to judge the grammatical acceptability of a sentence, with the goal of testing their linguistic competence. We introduce the Corpus of Linguistic Acceptability (CoLA), a set of 10,657 English sentences labeled as grammatical or ungrammatical from published linguistics literature. As baselines, we train several recurrent neural network models on acceptability classification, and find that our models outperform unsupervised models by Lau et al. (2016) on CoLA. Error-analysis on specific grammatical phenomena reveals that both Lau et al.'s models and ours learn systematic generalizations like subject-verb-object order. However, all models we test perform far below human level on a wide range of grammatical constructions.

在本文中，我们描述了我们参与Case-2022的子任务1，即与休闲新闻语料库的事件因果关系识别。我们通过在少数带注释的示例（即几次配置）上利用一组简单但互补的技术来解决因果关系识别（CRI）任务。我们遵循一种基于迅速的预测方法，用于微调LMS，其中CRI任务被视为掩盖语言建模问题（MLM）。这种方法允许LMS在MLM问题上进行本地预先训练，可以直接生成对CRI特异性提示的文本响应。我们将此方法的性能与在整个数据集中训练的集合技术进行比较。我们表现​​最佳的提交仅接受了每班256个实例，整个数据集的一小部分培训，但能够获得第二好的精度（0.82），第三好的精度（0.82）和F1得分。 （0.85）非常接近获胜者团队（0.86）的报道。

预先接受训练的语言模型的进展导致了对自然语言理解的下游任务的令人印象深刻的结果。探索预先训练的语言模型的最新工作揭示了在其上下围化表示中编码的广泛的语言属性。然而，目前尚不清楚他们是否编码对符号推理方法至关重要的语义知识。我们提出了一种用于探测预先接受训练的语言模型表示的逻辑推断的语言信息的方法。我们的探测数据集涵盖主要符号推理系统所需的语言现象列表。我们发现（i）预先接受的语言模型为推断编码几种类型的语言信息，但是还有一些类型的信息弱编码，（ii）语言模型可以通过微调有效地学习语言信息缺少语言信息。总体而言，我们的调查结果提供了逻辑推理语言模型的语言信息的洞察力，以及他们的预训练程序捕获。此外，我们已经证明了语言模型作为语义和背景知识库的潜力，用于支持符号推断方法。

State-of-the-art text simplification (TS) systems adopt end-to-end neural network models to directly generate the simplified version of the input text, and usually function as a blackbox. Moreover, TS is usually treated as an all-purpose generic task under the assumption of homogeneity, where the same simplification is suitable for all. In recent years, however, there has been increasing recognition of the need to adapt the simplification techniques to the specific needs of different target groups. In this work, we aim to advance current research on explainable and controllable TS in two ways: First, building on recently proposed work to increase the transparency of TS systems, we use a large set of (psycho-)linguistic features in combination with pre-trained language models to improve explainable complexity prediction. Second, based on the results of this preliminary task, we extend a state-of-the-art Seq2Seq TS model, ACCESS, to enable explicit control of ten attributes. The results of experiments show (1) that our approach improves the performance of state-of-the-art models for predicting explainable complexity and (2) that explicitly conditioning the Seq2Seq model on ten attributes leads to a significant improvement in performance in both within-domain and out-of-domain settings.

来自文本的采矿因果关系是一种复杂的和至关重要的自然语言理解任务，对应于人类认知。其解决方案的现有研究可以分为两种主要类别：基于特征工程和基于神经模型的方法。在本文中，我们发现前者具有不完整的覆盖范围和固有的错误，但提供了先验知识;虽然后者利用上下文信息，但其因果推断不足。为了处理限制，我们提出了一个名为MCDN的新型因果关系检测模型，明确地模拟因果关系，而且，利用两种方法的优势。具体而言，我们采用多头自我关注在Word级别获得语义特征，并在段级别推断出来的SCRN。据我们所知，关于因果关系任务，这是第一次应用关系网络。实验结果表明：1）该方法对因果区检测进行了突出的性能; 2）进一步分析表现出MCDN的有效性和稳健性。

框架语义解析是一项基本的NLP任务，由三个子任务组成：框架标识，参数识别和角色分类。以前的大多数研究都倾向于忽略不同子任务与论点之间的关系，并且很少关注Framenet中定义的本体论框架知识。在本文中，我们提出了一个带有双层（KID）的知识引导的增量语义解析器。我们首先介绍框架知识图（FKG），这是一个构建框架知识上构建的框架和FES（帧元素）的异质图，以便我们可以得出框架和FES的知识增强表示。此外，我们提出了框架语义图（FSG）来表示用图形结构从文本中提取的框架语义结构。通过这种方式，我们可以将框架语义解析转变为增量图构造问题，以加强子任务之间的相互作用和参数之间的关系。我们的实验表明，在两个Framenet数据集上，KID的表现优于先前的最新方法1.7 f1得分。我们的代码可在https://github.com/pkunlp-icler/kid上使用。

The emergence of pre-trained language models (PLMs) has shown great success in many Natural Language Processing (NLP) tasks including text classification. Due to the minimal to no feature engineering required when using these models, PLMs are becoming the de facto choice for any NLP task. However, for domain-specific corpora (e.g., financial, legal, and industrial), fine-tuning a pre-trained model for a specific task has shown to provide a performance improvement. In this paper, we compare the performance of four different PLMs on three public domain-free datasets and a real-world dataset containing domain-specific words, against a simple SVM linear classifier with TFIDF vectorized text. The experimental results on the four datasets show that using PLMs, even fine-tuned, do not provide significant gain over the linear SVM classifier. Hence, we recommend that for text classification tasks, traditional SVM along with careful feature engineering can pro-vide a cheaper and superior performance than PLMs.

作为人类认知的重要组成部分，造成效果关系频繁出现在文本中，从文本策划原因关系有助于建立预测任务的因果网络。现有的因果关系提取技术包括基于知识的，统计机器学习（ML）和基于深度学习的方法。每种方法都具有其优点和缺点。例如，基于知识的方法是可以理解的，但需要广泛的手动域知识并具有较差的跨域适用性。由于自然语言处理（NLP）工具包，统计机器学习方法更加自动化。但是，功能工程是劳动密集型的，工具包可能导致错误传播。在过去的几年里，由于其强大的代表学习能力和计算资源的快速增加，深入学习技术吸引了NLP研究人员的大量关注。它们的局限包括高计算成本和缺乏足够的注释培训数据。在本文中，我们对因果关系提取进行了综合调查。我们最初介绍了因果关系提取中存在的主要形式：显式的内部管制因果关系，隐含因果关系和间情态因果关系。接下来，我们列出了代理关系提取的基准数据集和建模评估方法。然后，我们介绍了三种技术的结构化概述了与他们的代表系统。最后，我们突出了潜在的方向存在现有的开放挑战。